A ]
"VST, %>3^ AQV^^OK ™M^\ft\GYL
THE
BOTANICAL ATLAS
A GU IDE TO
THE PRACTICAL STUDY OF PLANTS
CONTAINING
REPRESENTATIVES OF THE LEADING FORMS OF PLANT LIFE
BY
D. M'ALPINE, F.C.S.
VOLUME II.
CRYPTOGAMS
W. & A. K. JOHNSTON, EDINBURGH
i883
PREFACE.
THE "Botanical Atlas" is carried out on the same plan as the "Biological" and "Zoological" Atlases,
which have been so favourably received. There are several improvements, however, introduced, which it is hoped
the student will appreciate. The colour, for instance, is natural, so that every plant, or part of a plant, wears
its appropriate garb. The Life Histories of organisms, too, have received full recognition, and the student of
Animal Life will thus see that there is much in common between the two kingdoms. >
The Cryptogams range from the simplest organisms which cause Disease or produce Alcohol, through Mushroom,
Seaweed, Lichen, Moss, Fern, Horse-Tail, and Club-Moss, ending with those which foreshadow the higher Seed-bearing
Plants. The microscope is here necessarily the principal instrument of research ; and in delineating minute objects requir-
ing the highest powers for their proper determination, I have been largely indebted to the labours of others. My thanks
are specially due to Professor Dodel-Port, who allowed me free and full use of the beautiful Figures in his "Anatomical
and Physiological Atlas of Botany," and even favoured me with other drawings to choose from, if necessary.
The PHANEROGAMS are represented in all their leading divisions, and the various reproductive processes are fully
illustrated. Typical members are chosen from the principal Natural Orders, and the mode of examination pointed out.
The Flower and its various parts passing into Fruit and Seed are mainly considered, and this forms the best introduction
to a course of Practical Botany, since the eye and hand, trained to dissect and distinguish these comparatively conspicuous
structures, can then more easily pass to the study of the minute structure of Root, Shoot, and Leaf, and their various
modifications.
As the specimens chosen are of the commonest kind — from the road-side, the sea-shore, the ponds, the meadows, and
the woods — and as full directions are given along with the drawing for their proper examination, this Atlas appeals to
every one who takes an interest in the various forms of Plant Life ; and as they are taken up in order, commencing with
the simplest and most uniform, and ending with the most complex, that general view of the whole field is given which is
the best preparation for dipping deeper into any department of it.
D. M'ALPINE.
April, 1883.
CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
CRYPTOGAMS.
PLATE.
GLCEOCAPSA, OSCILLATORIA, SCYTONEMA, RIVULARIA, NOSTOC, PALMELLA,
EUGLENA, YEAST ----- I.
BACTERIA - - - - - - II.
BACILLUS ANTHRACIS, OR ANTHRAX BACTERIUM - - III.
PROTOCOCCUS, PANDORINA, ULOTHRIX, HYDRODICTYON - IV.
CONFERVA, ULVA, ENTEROMORPHA, and MYXOMYCETES - - V.
SPIROGYRA, DIATOM, and DESMID - - VI.
COSMARIUM— A DESMID ------ VII.
COMMON BROWN MOULD - ... VIII.
VOLVOX GLOBATOR - - IX.
VOLVOX MINOR ------ X.
VAUCHERIA and CEDOGONIUM - - - - XI.
POTATO-DISEASE FUNGUS - - - - - XII.
BLADDER WRACK and TANGLE - - - - XIII.
PEZIZA and COMMON GREEN MOULD ... - XIV.
LICHEN - - - - - - - XV.
RUST OF WHEAT - « - - - XVI.
MUSHROOM and RED SEA-WEED ----- XVII.
RED SEA-WEED— continued .... - XVIII.
CHARA - - - - - - XIX.
LIVERWORTS— LUNULARIA and MARCHANTIA - - - XX.
MOSS - - - - - - - XXI.
FERN ------- XXII.
FERN— continued— CLASSIFICATION ----- XXIII.
HORSE-TAIL and PILLWORT— Classification - - - XXIV.
CLUB-MOSS and SELAGIN ELLA— Classification - XXV.
CRYPTOGAMS and PHANEROGAMS— Connection between - ' - XXVI.
INDEX.
CRYPTOGAMS
GLCEOCAPSA— YEAST
Fig. 1 (jhmcapsd- varying from zdob in. in lenglh & 4000 in. in bre*
to half these dimensions
Fig. 2 OsciRmrin-breaMi of foments fhmieoo to zooomdi
c . highly magnified.
PLATE I.
Fig 6 Nostoc —cells on an average 4000 inch, in din.
b. portion of Filament
a. . 'Nostoc colony
_i
b. <rushed showing discs
d.Movtng Filament
Heterocyst
Fig. 7 FabnellxL— average din. from, 3WD to SOW inch
a. cells together b. cells detached, ^enlarged
Fig. 8 FlUjleruZ- average length. 500 inch
disc /lot
Fig. 4 Small portion
FigSSrytonerruL
natural size
Fig. 5 Mvularia, (*240)
highly magnified
Fig. 9 Yeast — average size 3~UUd inch
d. Colony of Cell*
o. Cell with, old Bud
b. Cell budding
ud
f 'Development of £ndo-gonidicu
LIFE HISTORY DIA6RAM
Bud (External BiyUiorv)
g. JSffects of Reagent
\Otuhed Totash,
Iodine.
Hast
JSndoganukcL (Internal Dinsion.)
M. , Ai
Engraved, Printed and Publisned "by "W! & ATT Johnston, Edinburgh, k London.
PLATE I.-GLCEOCAPSA, OSCILLATORIA, SCYTONEMA, RIVULARIA, NOSTOC, PALMELLA,
EUGLENA, and YEAST.
{Figs. 16, 5, ami (5ft after Lwersten; Pirrs. 3 and 4 after Dr Wehcit*ch.)
Gloeocapsa.
Glceocapsa (Gr. gffa, glue ; capsa, a case) occurs in damp places, and may be conveniently had for examination from the glass of
damp green-houses, where it forms in gelatinous masses.
The single rounded cell consists of a small protoplasmic mass surrounded by a gelatinous cell-wall, and divides in all the directions
of space till it forms a little colony. Division takes place within the parent envelope, and each daughter-cell forms for itself a new cell-
wall. The original envelope, stretched in this way, absorbs more and more water until, towards the exterior, it gradually shades off into
the surrounding liquid.
Fig. la. Examine under highest power: \st, as it naturally occurs; 2nd, stained with magenta; and $rd, with iodine to bring out
cell-wall distinctly.
The young cell stains deeply, showing the protoplasm to be dense; the next is undergoing division lengthways,
and the third shows transverse division.
Fig". lb. Showing different stages of division, ending in the formation of a colony.
Oscillatoria.
Oscillatoria (so named from its oscillating or pendulum-like movement) occurs in various situations, either in water or on damp
earth ; but it may be found at any season of the year by the roadside, where it forms those spreading green patches at the bottom of
damp walls, etc
Under the microscope it is seen to consist of long filaments, each with a distinct colourless sheath of cellulose, containing proto-
plasm coloured bottle-green. The protoplasmic contents are marked by transverse lines, with alternate lines only faintly indicated. The
power of growth is equally distributed over the whole filament, and any one of the segments can divide into two new ones.
Under the influence of light these filaments exhibit movement They have a slow, swinging movement from side to side, the stiff
filament giving the idea of a pendulum in motion.
Fig. 2a. Mount a small quantity in a drop of water, and examine under highest power.
Long filaments, with their contents divided by numerous transverse lines.
Fig. 2 b. Press upon cover-glass so as to crush the filaments.
The contents are seen to be little discs wrapped in a sheath of cellulose, which lies about ruptured.
Fig. 2c. The faint lines between the more decided transverse markings are the expression of the incipient division of each disc
into two.
At the base a single disc is shown.
Fig. 2d. The moving filament swings from side to side, at the same time going forward.
Scytonema. ,
Scytonema (Gr. sfa/tos, a whip; nana, a thread) occurs usually in dense tufts on moist rocks, sometimes in sufficient quantity to
disguise the natural brownish or blackish colour of the rocks. This particular kind is of a shining black colour.
Instead of growth going on regularly throughout the filament, as in Oscillatoria, there are some points at which growth is more
vigorous, and this bulging gives rise to side filaments or branches.
Fig. 3. Shows a small tuft in its natural size.
Fig. 4. Shows a small filament magnified. There is the common sheath wrapping round the discs, and branches going off at
particular spots.
Rivularia.
Rivularia (I^at. rivulus, a rill) may be found in mountain streams, coating the surfaces of submerged stones or water-plants. It
forms dark-green cushions, which are often incrusted with carbonate of lime, thus giving the whole a peculiar hardened look.
It departs from the uniform characters exhibited by the plants already considered in several respects. 1. Whereas, in Oscillatoria,
the filaments of jointed protoplasm could evidently go on growing to any extent, here growth seems to die out at one end, giving rise
to a tapering whip-lash filament 2. Whereas, in Oscillatoria, the filaments were of equal diameter throughout, here not only is there a taper-
ing at one end of the filament, but there is a globular development at the other end, in the form of a Basal-cell or Heterocyst, incapable
of further sub-division. 3. Whereas each segment of Oscillatoria had the power of division, and a detached disc could give rise to a
new plant, here certain cells, in the course of a filament, only possess that power. One of the cells becomes a basal-cell, and the cell
immediately above that grows out into a new filament As the whip ends of the filaments are all directed outwards, there is a radi-
ating appearance presented, with a basal-cell at the bottom of each filament 4. The large cell above the basal-cell may grow till it is
fully ten times longer than broad, thus becoming capable of persisting during the winter when the rest of the plant has decayed, and
producing a new Rivularia in the spring.
Fig. 5. A single filament with Basal-cell or Heterocyst (Gr. heteros, different) at one end, and pointed cell at the other.
The Common Nostoc.
The Commom Nostoc is to be looked for after rain, as it readily dries up. It occurs as dark, shapeless, jelly-like masses on
garden walks or grass plots.
Under the microscope there is seen to be imbedded in the jelly long convoluted filaments, composed of little globular cells, forming
a beautiful beaded neck-lace arrangement, with larger cells every here and there — the Heterocysts. The neck-lace is composed ot
distinct cells, and not mere discs of protoplasm embedded in a sheath, as in Oscillatoria. The embedding jelly is probably the cell-
walls softened with excess of water and run together.
The mode of multiplication varies. The portion of the old colony, between two heterocysts, breaks away from the jelly, and in the
water the cells stretch themselves transversely and divide repeatedly, parallel to the long axis of the chain. In this way a number of
short filaments are formed, side by side, which afterwards arrange themselves end to end, and so form the long meandering chain. In
rare cases spores are formed generally between two heterocysts, and persisting after the rest of the filament has decayed, they give rise
to a new chain.
Fig. 6 a. Examine small portion of the jelly under highest power, and observe the beautiful twistings of the chain, with larger
cells occurring at intervals.
Fig. 6b. Stain with Iodine and Sulphuric acid to show the cellulose coat investing each celL
Glceocapsa, etc. — continued.
Palmella Cruenta.
Palmella Cruenta (Gr. palmos, a shuddering ; Lat. cruentus, bloody), or " Gory Dew," occurs towards the bottom of damp walls, and
may frequently be observed even in the thoroughfares of towns. It is readily recognised by its bloody hue, and in cold water it yields
a beautiful, pale pink colour.
The cells are embedded in gelatinous matter, and are sometimes angular from pressure.
Pig. la, b. Examine, under highest power, in a drop of water. It peels off the walls in flakes, and only a small clean speck
from the surface need be mounted for examination.
Euglena.
Euglena (Gr. eu, great; glene, the eye-ball), unlike the preceding, is of a brilliant green hue, yet with a touch of red in it. It
occurs commonly in the black water draining from manure heaps, which is known to be rich in Nitrogen.
Euglena is a motile organism, moving freely about by means of a long vibratile cilium, at least the length of the body. It is
reckoned by some zoologists as an animal belonging to the Infusoria; but there are many points in its character which bear out its
vegetable nature, so that, if an animal, it is a vegetating one.
It consists of a spindle-shaped body, tapering at both ends, but as it moves about the outline varies and assumes all possible
shapes. There is a red spot, called the eye-spot, towards one end. The contents are distinctly granular and for the most part tinged
with the green colouring matter chlorophyll In the presence of sunlight, oxygen is evolved as a result of the decomposition of car-
bonic anhydride
It multiplies by internal divisioa When about to do so, it gradually becomes still and rounded, drops its cilium, and encloses
itself in a structureless case or cyst. The contents divide into numerous portions, each of which, on being set free by the rupture of
the cyst, becomes a new Euglena.
Fig. 8. Dip a glass rod into the green scum, and leave the smallest possible portion on a slide, and examine under highest
power. This shows the encysted or encysting stage.
Examine a drop of the blackish water for the fully developed forms.
They will be seen moving about leisurely and twisting themselves into all conceivable shapes. By the application
of iodine, the cilium will be rendered apparent; and it is curious to note that Euglena is not propelled behind by
its cilium but is actually dragged along by it.
In the same liquid there will be a variety of organisms, but the red eye-spot will mark out Euglena even when
it is rounded and motionless.
Yeast (Saccharomyces — Lat saccharum, sugar ; Gr. mukes, a fungus).
Yeast may be obtained at any brewer's establishment
Fig. da, b, c, and d. Take up a little yeast with a pipette, and drop on to slide, and examine under highest power.
In every position the granules appear round, hence they are not flat, like a coin, but globular.
Cell-walL
Protoplasmic contents.
Vacuoles filled with cell-sap.
Buds produced, and this process may be repeated, as in d, until an aggregation is formed.
Fig. 9e, f. Starve some yeast by laying it out on a piece of plaster-of-Paris, and keep it moist with wet blotting-paper under a
bell-jar. Under these circumstances the yeast is unable to throw off buds, so it breaks up internally in about a
week into four portions, which have the power of reproducing the yeast under favourable conditions.
Fig. 9g. The vacuole is seen to be less stained than the rest.
In the larger cells the staining material may bring out a dark or denser spot, which is the Nucleus.
Life History. — The Yeast under ordinary circumstances multiplies by budding, and this may go on indefinitely as long as nourish-
ment is supplied, but when nourishment fails, it can divide internally, and so prolong its existence by means of Endo-
gonidia (Gr. endot/, within ; gone, seed).
Note. — The term Gonidium will be used to denote cells non-sexually produced, capable of reproducing the plant On the other
hand, the term Spore will be applied to such cells as result from sexual reproduction.
CRYPTOGAMS
BACTERIA
PLATE II
Fig.lMicro coccus pro digwsus n
a, group fy £ MtCTO COCCUS -a, chair, F W' ° Z00gloC<l-(L film,
Fin. 5. Bacteria,
in -putrefying Vegetable, matter
Fig. 7. Spirillum wndulcb
V.
(tTFiLarnent. Traducing Sports
^•a9te.
(g ) Filament, breaking up
Fig. 4. Bacteria, tn Human Blood
after death,
Fig. 6. SpirochceXe, . Obermeierb
(cu) xooglosa.
Fig.SDevelopnent of SptriUicrn,
, : £5 ; _ ;? ^<b a ^ (b) Vibrio- Wee, forma
(cL) Motionless well-developed,
Filaments
(cj becoming Filamentous
^s\
ffj Ripe, motile, filament
Fiq.Sa-Un HISTORT DIAGRAM
\SpiriZum
Freer spores encysting
& dividing
(t) Spores germinating
ChJ Spores encysting j.g
&dividing * *£
°©«> ^Vi Sporea
9 & ' <s» f f a,
2 {ZoqpUxa -stsg&j
S^Vibrio- stage
'Hamentous-stage<
Engraved, Printed and Published "by "W! k AX Johnston, Edinburgh. Sc london.
PLATE IL— BACTERIA, or SOHIZOMYCETES (Gr. schists, a splitting).
(Fig. 8 t» offer Bvart, the rut after Dodel-Port, bated on Dr Koch's photographs.)
Bacteria are those organisms which produce the change in organic bodies known as Putrefaction. Hay Bacteria, developed in an
infusion of hay, may be profitably examined first Take some fresh hay, pour hot water upon it, and allow to stand. In the course
of a day or two the liquid becomes turbid, due to the presence of Bacteria, and latterly it has the sme.l of decaying organic matter
If a drop of this liquid be examined under the highest power of the microscope, it will be found to contain Bacteria of simple form.
Figures X 3000, except Fig. 8.
Fig. 1. Micrococci (Gr. mikros, little; kokkos, a berry) are simply small, round, or oval cells, occurring free, or in chain-like
rows, or united into a gelatinous mass. They are remarkable for the bright colouring matters with which they are tinged
— red, blue, etc &
Micrococcus prodigiosus— the blood-red Micrococcus— is a spherical form, appearing as blood-red, slimy drops on
stale potatoes, bread, damp wafers, and the like. From its sudden appearance (often arising in the course of a single
night) it has often been superstitiously regarded as an evil omen, as stories of "bleeding bread" or "bleeding wafers"*
testify. The colouring matter is insoluble in water, but may be extracted by alcohol or ether.
Fig. 2. A chain of Micrococci found in putrefying blood.
This chain has probably originated from the repeated division of a single individual The single cell lengthens
as it grows, then forms a sort of figure of 8 preliminary to division, and this repeated again and again would give
rise to the chain. - °
Fig. 3. A gelatinous film or Zooglcea.
This film or scum forms on the surface of putrefying fluids, and consists of a number of Micrococci embedded
m rows in a gelatinous material This arrangement in rows has probably been produced, as in Fig. 2, by repeated
division, as some are found in that conditioa
Fig. 4. Bacteria (Gr. bakterion, a staff), or Cylindrical Forms— the two red blood-corpuscles are merely represented to show
relative size.
These forms are the first found in the body after death. They are short or long rods, multiplying by transverse
division.
Fig. 5. Rods from putrefying vegetable matter, with a vibratile cilium at each end, by means of which they wriggle about.
Fig. 6. Spirochete (Gr. chaite, hair), or Relapsing Fever Bacteria, occurring in the blood of fever patients.
The spiral filaments are flexible and exhibit wave-like movements, which is often revealed by the motion imparted
to the blood-corpuscles in the neighbourhood.
Fig. 7. Spirillum — to be found in puddles in summer where there is decaying vegetable matter.
They form inflexible spiral filaments, of one or several turns, and have a vibratile cilium at each end
Fig. 8. Development of Spirillum — a to i.
(a.) Zooglcea-stage — motionless forms embedded in gelatinous materiaL
lb.) Vibrio-stage — bow-shaped forms passing into spiral forms.
(c.) Filamentous-stage — the last elongated.
(d.) Filamentous-stage — further developed forms, in which the filament is long and motionless.
le.) Filamentous-stage — Spore-producing filament
(/) Filamentous-stage — ripe and motile filament
(g.) Filamentous-stage — filament breaking up.
th.) Spores which encyst and divide to form sporules.
(i.) Spores germinating — little comma-shaped bodies which reproduce the original Spirillum
Life History Diagram.— The stages are here given through which Spirillum passes in order to complete the cycle of its life.
CRYPTOGAMS
ANTHRAX BACTERIUM
PLATE III.
Fig. 1. B. AnJUVTCUCLs as ocao~rvig in the, ilood & spleen, of a diseased Animal
Fig. 3. Cham of Spores
oblique to cuds.
Fig. 2. Filament producing Spores
Fig. 4. Chain of Spores
perpendicular to axis.
Fig. 6.
^^Cbutters
jmjofSporei
Fig. 1. Development from the Spore
be d,
a
0°
o
.*.' »i
»r '
■
jttiW i ri
Engraved, Printed and Published "by "W! k AX Johnston, Edinburgh. 8c Iondon.
PLATE IH-BACTERIUM ANTHRACIS, or BACILLUS ANTHRACIS, COHN.
(A/ler Dodel-Port.)
Splenic Fever Bacterium, or Bacillus Anthracis (Lat bacillum, a little staff; anthrax, anthracis, coal), may be taken as the type of
those contagious disease germs which have been so destructive in their effects upon the human race, and which are only now being care-
fully studied The principal facts made out concerning it may serve as a guide to other forms. It is interesting to note that it has
been made to lose its infecting power by frequently changing it in a solution of extract of meat ; and one of the triumphs of science at
the present day has been to render this and such-like deadly organisms comparatively harmless, by appropriate treatment The minute
size and immense numbers of the spores readily explain the spread of the infection, and as it has been proved that they may retain
their vitality for years, the disease may break out quite unexpectedly. It is also matter of experimental proof that the fever ensues
when the germs are taken in with the air breathed in the form of a dry dust, and thus reach the blood in the Lungs; or they may
reach the blood through scratches or other means.
Figures X 3000.
Pig. 1. Transparent rods, straight and bent, and of various lengths.
These rods are colourless and motionless. They divide transversely, and the joints adhere to form longer or
shorter rods.
Fig. 2. Filament produced by the elongation of the rods.
These filaments may attain a length several hundred times that of the original rods, and when fully developed,
their contents break up into numberless spores or endogonidia
Figs. 3 and 4. Spores placed obliquely or perpendicular to the long axis of the filament
The spores are oval or elliptical, with highly refractive contents and a dark outline.
Fig. 5. Gelatinous scum containing spores arranged in rows.
The gelatinous material gradually dissolves in the water, thus setting the spores free.
Fig. 6. Clusters of spores set free — either as above, or by the deliquescence of a gelatinous filament
Fig. 7. Development
(a.) Oval spore.
(b.) Oval spore, lengthening and dividing.
(<:.) Short rod lengthening and dividing further.
\d.) Longer rods formed.
(e.) Long jointed rod, as in Fig. i.
Life History. — The original short rods grow and lengthen in an appropriate medium, such as blood-serum or the aqueous humour
of the eye. The filaments, thus produced, having attained their full development soon begin to show in their interior
numerous bright spots, which latterly become the spores, and the rest of the filament passes into a jelly-like mass.
Several of the filaments may lay themselves together and so produce a gelatinous scum with the spores embedded and
arranged in rows. The spores are set free by the dissolution of this gelatinous material, and are then ready to begin
anew their course of development.
CRYPTOGAMS
PROTOCOCCUS— WATER-N ET
PLATE IV.
Tig.lFrotOCJOOUS vulgaris- average size -from 2000 to 5000 in
b. Effects of Reagents
Iodine icSu^hunc and Crushed Potash
c. Multiplication hy Division
division into 2 division into 4
d. Endogenous Dn-ision.
Glinted
Zoooomdium
Fig. 2 Proto * coccus pluvialis
c .after Division,
d.Motile. Forms
LIFE HISTORY DIAGRAM
Division into 4
/ ■■ Hfl Zooqonidu
Fig. 3 Fcuidoriiui (* SOOj
f. Resting Zygospore
b. J/ale Zoospore d. Coiyuga iff Zoospores
Zoospore. &.. Coryugatrd Zoospores g. Germinatiijg Zygospore
U L T H R I X CM 0)
frotococcus
■ysr&l .
h. Young Colory
oogonjdut
I'cntmts
Zoog
■n j-n ■ jht ^ Fig. 5 Fortiori ofFHammt _. cx , 9 Pm . ..
fyATomiiofVegetmy W nrod]jdm? ZooaomM ^ 6 ^A?fS^
producing Zoogorudci
Zooaoniduz
Fig 7 Fortiori ofFHammt producing Zoospores
2 Zoospores Female.
Zygospore
2. Zoospores rotating
together
j£v Rounded balls with xoospons
Engraved, Printed and Published "by W. & AX Johnston, Edmbtrrgh. 2c London.
PLATE IV.— PROTOCOCCUS, PANDORINA, ULOTHRIX and HYDRODICTYON.
Protococcus Vulgaris.
Protococcus Vulgaris (Gr. protos, first ; kokkos, a berry), or Pleurococcus, is well known as the green scum on the bark of trees.
It is so widely diffused that its means of multiplication must be very perfect. In fact it is like a continuous growing point, ever
dividing and ever ready to divide.
Under the microscope it is seen to consist of rounded cells, usually having a nucleus. This nucleus is a denser portion of the
protoplasm and stains more deeply than the rest The cells are also seen to be divided into two, three, or four portions. But towards the
end of autumn another process of division takes place. The contents of the cell break up into a great number of little masses which,
on escaping by the rupture of the cell-wall, are seen to consist of naked bits of protoplasm, with two threads of it propelling them
rapidly through the water. This naked moving protoplasm afterwards forms a cell-wall.
Fig. 1. Take a little bit of the bark of a tree, with this green scum upon it, and scrape off some of it into a drop of water on
a slide. Examine under highest power.
(a.) Ordinary resting-form consisting of Cell-wall and green-coloured contents.
(b.) Iodine brings out Nucleus — seen as a small dark spot in the centre of the cell.
Iodine and Sulphuric acid together — the cell-wall becomes blue and the protoplasm coagulates.
Crushed — to distinguish clearly between the tough cell-wall and the semi-fluid protoplasm.
Potash — dissolving the protoplasm.
(<r.) Multiplication by Division into four. The protoplasm first of all separates into two masses, and cell-wall forms in
the partition between. Next, each half behaves like the original whole so that four divisions are formed These
divisions separate, become rounded, and each forms a new Protococcus.
(d.) Endogenous Division producing motile forms. The protoplasmic contents begin to divide in the same way as
before, but instead of stopping at four, there is division into numerous segments of naked protoplasm. The
particles become rounded and escape as motile forms through the rupture of the original case. The motile
ciliated forms, non-sexually produced, are called Zoogonidia (Gr. zoon, an animal).
In the resting-forms it will be noticed, that they were clothed with a cell- wall before being set free, whereas
the motile forms only assume a cellulose covering afterwards.
Life History. — Multiplication takes place either by simple division into four portions, or into numerous motile forms, which after-
wards settle down and return to the ordinary resting-form.
Protococcus Pluvialis.
Protococcus Pluvialis (Lat pluvia, rain) as the specific name denotes, occurs in places where rain-water collects.
Fig. 2. Take some of the mtfddy sediment from rain-water, mount with clean water and examine under highest power.
Observe motionless and motile forms. The motile forms may either be clothed with a wall or naked.
Pandorina.
Pandorina (Gr. Pandora, a beautiful woman) occurs in ponds and ditches, but it may be had for examination from certain Natural
History dealers.
There are sixteen cells united into a free-swimming colony of globular shape by a gelatinous investment. Each of these sixteen
cells may give rise to a new colony. The cilia are withdrawn, whereby the whole comes to rest, and each individual divides into
sixteen portions like the parent In other cases, however, a single cell does not reproduce the colony. Two cells from different
individuals fuse together and the common mass ultimately forms a young colony. This process is called Conjugation, where the
two uniting elements closely resemble each other, and the result of it may be traced in the Figures.
Fig. 3a. Colony or Ccenobium (Gr. koine, in common ; bios, life) consisting of sixteen cells or Zoogonidia. Each Zoogonidium has
a red eye-spot and two projecting cilia, by the collective and harmonious action of them all a rolling motion is imparted
to the whole family.
(b, r.) Male and Female Zoospores. These reproductive cells are produced from different colonies, the smaller
being reckoned the Male, and the larger the Female element.
(d, e.) In conjugation, the two elements first come into contact by their ciliated ends, then they gradually swing
round side by side and fuse completely.
(f,g.) The single body resulting from conjugation is called a Zygospore (Gr. zugos, a yoke; spora, a seed). This
zygospore bursts its case and begins to germinate.
(h.) The germinating Zygospore draws in its cilia, rounds itself off and divides into sixteen cells, forming a colony.
Life History. — Each Zoogonidium of the Pandorina-colony -divides into sixteen portions — like the original — and then escapes through
the gelatinous wall. This is the non-sexual mode ot multiplication. The sexual reproduction consists in the production of cells
which are called Zoospores, one colony forming sixteen small (male) Zoospores, another sixteen larger (female) Zoospores.
Two unite to form a Zygospore, which germinates and produces a new colony.
Ulothrix Zonata.
(After Dodel-Port).
Ulothrix Zonata (Gr. oulos, woolly or curly; thrix, hair), or Curly-hair Alga, may be found in fresh waters, such as brooks, drink-
ing fountains and the like. It occurs in green tufts attached to some fixed body.
It is a simple filamentous Alga, reproducing itself non-sexually during winter and sexually during summer, but if the sexually reproduc-
tive cells fail to conjugate, they may still grow into a new plant
Non-sexual Stage —
Fig. 4. Portion of Filament in vegetating condition.
The cylindrical cells are placed end to end, and in each there is a green protoplasmic band about the
middle containing a nucleus.
Fig. 5. Portion of Filament exclusively producing Zoogonidia.
A mother-cell may produce one, two, four, or eight zoogonidia. The inner wall of the cell passes out as an
envelope surrounding them, and afterwards deliquesces to allow their escape.
Fig. 6. The Zoogonidium is pear-shaped, with four cilia and a red eye-spot and a contractile vacuole.
(a.) In motion, it rotates round its long axis by means of the four cilia.
(b.) On coming to rest, the cilia become stiff and fall off, and the zoogonidium fixes itself, by its tapering end, to
some object
(c.) The zoogonidium now germinates and, by repeated division, produces a filament, as in Fig. 4.
Protococcus, etc — continued.
Sexual Stage —
Fig. 7. Portion of Filament producing Zoospores, which are smaller and more numerous than the Zoogonidia, and only possess
two cilia.
The Mother-cell, contains eight, sixteen, or more Zoospores.
In conjugation, two zoospores come together sideways and fusion takes place from the pointed end backwards.
The united zoospores behave like a zoogonidium, lose their cilia and settle down. The result of conjugation is a
Zygospore.
Fig. 8. The Zygospore germinates and divides into a greater or smaller number of Zoogonidia, which reproduce the plant as
before.
Non-Conjugating Stage —
Fig. 9. Portion of Filament with Zoospores that have not escaped, germinating directly.
When Zoospores do not meet in conjugation, they produce new plants directly, but they are weak and often
perish.
Life History. — Ulothrix may give rise to Zoogonidia, which germinate and reproduce the plant; or it may give rise to Zoospores,
which conjugate and produce a Zygospore, from which, by division, numerous Zoogonidia arise to go through the ordinary
course; or the Zoospores directly produce a new plant.
With regard to the Conjugation of U. zonata, Professor Dodel-Port remarks: "The conjugation of U. zonata represents the
simplest form of the sexual process. The conjugatory cells are alike, and are not distinguishable in their essential features from the
non-sexual reproductive cells. If, for any reason, conjugation has not occurred, they behave just the same as the zoogonidia, incapable
of conjugation, and develop non-sexually. The act of conjugation may be delayed without injuring their power of reproduction Con-
jugation appears here merely as the result of a lucky accident, and we may therefore consider Ulothrix as a type of those lower forms
which show us the first beginnings of the sexual process in plants."
Hydrodictyon.
Hydrodictyon (Gr. hudor, water; diktuon, a net-work), or Water-net, is met with in clear ponds or flowing streams. It often
occurs in great masses and the meshes of the net may be distinguished by the naked eye.
The net is composed of cells containing green coloured protoplasm, and united so as to form a beautiful pattern. The contents of
the cells may either break up into Zoogonidia or Zoospores.
The Zoogonidia may form in a single cell to the number of 20,000, and these minute particles have a swarming motion for a short
time, then they arrange themselves into a netted pattern, by bringing their ends properly together. The mother-cell ruptures, setting free
the delicately formed net perfect in all its details.
Fig. 10 a. A small portion of the old net — natural size.
(A) A very small portion magnified, showing the individual cells forming each mesh.
CRYPTOGAMS
CONFERVACE^E, ULVACE^E, AND MYXOMYCETES
PLATE V.
Tig.l Cladopfwra, Fig.lFortwnfwlkr 'magnified C N F E R V A C E £
Tig. 3 Treated with Iodine,
Branch,
ibrnona
Bud, PartivtipzecL off-\
Tig. 4 Apical, Cells of
Gadophora gbmeraia
Tig. 5 Tree Zoogonidia
of same
T
s
"* v \t Zoogonidia escaping
^
T
tgonidia. forming
1 % ,
J \ I Genrw
Tig. 6 Ulva portion magm/M
U L V I C E k
Tig. 7 Toruon more highly magnified
Ar-s Q ' //V.ffw Zoogoruda
^X/^ENTEROMORPHA
LIFE HISTORY DIAGRAM
Zoogonida
Zygospores
Conferva. & libra.
Zoospores
Tig. 8 Tnieromorpha,
magnified l n i l n u m u n r n m Fig.lZMicro zoospores free,
Tig.2 Toruon of I. compress a (*6Q0) and Conjugating
Tig. 13 Successive Stages in the
Vegetative. CeUs
\M process of Conjugation
J&ro.zoospores
X
Tig. 15 Sporangia ofArcyria, mcarnata
Tig. 24 Aethaliim Sepaczcm
3 " ^' ! &l\ ,
0"M Y C E T E S
Sporangium, closed.
(a.) Amoeboid. Stage
f b ) flasmodtum Stage ( c I development from Spore
Snore « ~_i ] Cdwied. Zoospores
oj>ore Sporexase rupturing
Sporecotitmts ■o*'
y
CapilUtiion,
Sporangium. Burst
LIFE HISTORY DIAGRAM
Adult Myxopod orAmosboid stage
ifasttgopods (Zoospores
C-ilia-gon e A motboid-St ag e
<u
(fwtdlfyxopods
orCompound. Zygospore)
J& JSneysted form
(Sporangium,)
Segmented form fCapilUtaim
Engraved, Printed and Published "by W! k AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
PLATE V.— CONFERVACE.E, ULVACE^, and MYXOMYCETES.
( 'Reproduction and Development principally after Oersted.)
Confervaceje (Lat confervere, to unite) are filamentous Algae, occurring plentifully in every stagnant water, usually in great abun-
dance round the margin. The filaments grow in length by the individual cells dividing into two Multiplication takes place by
Zoogonidia, and Conjugation has been observed in Cladophora.
Figs. 1 and 2. Cladophora (Gr. k/ados, a branch ; phono, I bear), so named from its being branched, is a very common form.
Examine a small portion in water.
Filament with alternate branches forming. The top of the cell puts forth a little pocket at one side, which
grows and divides like the parent filament Secondary branches may likewise be formed, thus giving rise to bushy
tufts. One or more nuclei may be present in each cell.
Fig. 3. Treatment with Iodine, showing starch granules.
The contents are seen to be broken up into little ovoid masses called chlorophyll-corpuscles, and it is in these
the starch is formed.
Yellowish brown colour indicates protoplasm.
The darker spots are in reality dark-blue, indicating their starchy nature.
The cellulose wall is clearly differentiated from the contents.
Fig. 4. Multiplication by Zoogonidia.
The contents of the cells break up into little masses, which round themselves off, acquire cilia, and escape by a
break in the side of the wall.
Fig. 5. Zoogonidia germinating.
They lose their cilia, begin to elongate, and grow to a filament.
Ulvace^e form flat expansions of cells, and are commonly met with on the seashore. The common green Laver (U. latissima) may
be a foot square, and is so puckered and folded that it seems branched. Enteromorpha may be regarded as a tubular Ulva; and as
Conjugation has been clearly observed in it, the process will be described in that connection.
Fig. 6. Mount a small piece in water and examine.
The cells are angular from pressure, and dark spots appear in each.
Fig. 7. Highly magnified portion.
A number of the cells contain Zoogonidia. The Zoogonidia escape by small openings on the surface, and
move about in the water by means of cilia.
Enteromorpha (Gr. enteron, intestine ; morp/ie, shape), instead of being flat, like Ulva, forms a slender tube. It occurs plentifully
on the seashore, attached to stones, rocks, or even seaweed, and also forms those slimy, green growths so common on the posts of piers,
etc. In the autumn particularly the cells give rise to innumerable actively moving Zoospores. These come together in the water, and
Conjugation takes place. The result is a Zygospore, which is believed to germinate in the ensuing spring and become a new Entero-
morpha.
Fig. 8. It consists of a tapering attached end, giving off numerous small branches, then expanding till it reaches the apex, where
a slender forked portion branches off a little to one side. The surface of this specimen is puckered, and here and
there delicate branches are formed.
Figs. 9 and 10. Take a small portion and examine under microscope.
The tube is seen to consist of a single layer of cells, and when spread out, as in Fig. 9, quite resembles the
frond of Ulva.
Fig. 11. Portion highly magnified.
Some of the cells are still in the vegetative condition, others are full of Zoospores, in some the contents have
escaped, and on the left side the Zoospores are seen in the act of escaping, enveloped by the inner membrane of
the cell.
Figs. 12 and 13. Micro-'zoospores free and conjugating.
Two Zoospores meet by their pointed ends, then swing round side by side, blend, lose their cilia, and become
a pear-shaped Zygospore.
Life History of Conferracece and Ulvacece. — The cells either produce Zoogonidia, which grow into a new plant, or Zoospores,
which conjugate, thereby forming Zygospores to reproduce the plant.
Myxomycetes (Gr. muxa, slime ; mukes> a fungus), or Slime-fungi, as their name denotes, are slimy bodies found on rotten wood,
decaying leaves, etc.; and the specimen chosen — Aethalium septicum, or "flowers of tan" — occurs on spent tan. It is of a creamy,
yellow colour; and in nurseries, where spent tan is used for bottom heat, it may be found in the autumn overspreading large surfaces,
and, forced by the heat, it has been known to make its way up the stems of plants. The limit of heat for this form is 40 C.
The Myxomycetes are peculiar in passing through an Amoeboid stage, when they take in solid nutriment and feed like animals, so
that in this stage of their existence at least they resemble animals rather than plants. Their life history too is quite comparable to
that of some of the lower animals, as may be seen from the Figures.
Fig. 14. Aethalium septicum (Gr. aithales, splendid, from its appearance).
(a.) The Amoeboid stage, or Myxopod of the animal series, possesses a nucleus.
(b.) The Plasmodium stage is the large, conspicuous, yellowish mass, made up of a protoplasmic network show-
ing streaming of the contents as indicated by the arrows.
(c.) The Spore possesses a thick cell-wall, which bursts to allow the contents to escape. The rounded mass
developes two cilia, which become reduced to one, and thus a body is formed like the Mastigopod of
the animal series. Even this single cilium disappears, and the Amoeboid stage is reached, as at the
beginning.
Fig. 15. Sporangium of Arcyria — unopened and opened. The elasticity of the fibres composing the Capillitium (Lat capillus, a
hair) ultimately ruptures the case and jerks out the spores.
ConfervacEjE, etc. — continued.
Life History. — In fixing the starting-point for the life history of the Myxomycetes I have been guided by its evident similarity to
that of some of the Monera described by Haeckel, and so start with the Amoeboid form as the first stage in the cycle.
If the phases through which it passes are compared with those of Protomyxa — an undoubted animal found in the sea by
Haeckel — it will be found that the agreement is striking.
The first, or Amoeboid stage, has all the characters of an amoeba, possessing a nucleus, throwing out processes in
different directions, moving about, and taking in solid particles for food.
The second, or Plasmodium stage, consists of a number of amoeboid masses run together to form one large spreading
mass capable of a creeping motion, as already observed, along with internal motion of the contents. The nuclei of each'
originally independent mass remain distinct, so that there is coalescence of cells but not conjugation.
The third, or Encysted stage, is represented by the Sporangium. The irregularly-shaped Plasmodium assumes a more
definite shape as its power of throwing out processes becomes weakened, and usually forms a rounded mass of protoplasm
invested by a cellulose wall.
The fourth, or Segmented stage, is produced by the internal protoplasm, differentiating in such a way as to form a
network of fibres, and the protoplasm still remaining in the meshes becomes the Spores. The hair like structure, in the
meshes of which the Spores are developed, is known as the Capillitium.
. The fifth stage, or Rounded Spores. The contents of the liberated Spores escape and become —
The sixth stage, or Zoospores, which have two cilia, then one, and finally pass into the Amoeboid form with which we
started.
It will be evident from the above description that the Myxomycetes cannot retain their position among the conjugating
forms of Fungi; and even when their animal nature is considered they do not fall into the lowest strata either of Plant
or Animal society.
CRYPTOGAMS
SPIROGYRA, DESMID, AND DIATOM
PLATE VI
FiglForton ofFilament ^ 2 M M ^^^ Io ^
ofSpirogyra
average length of aB. WOinA Ibread/k
Fig.4 (Ms placed ui alcohol during division
b division
Fig. 6 Cells after Conjugation *. natural statu, fyj?
Primordial utricle
Nucleus
■ — Starch, -granules
Fig. 3 Cell undergoing division
3Wo ' •'[*' Jl\ Zoospores
DIAGRAM
Arrangement of Spiral bands
c further division
| .
Fig. 7 Gemmation of Zygospore
c Germination ■further advanced
Fig. 5 Two Cells co7gugatmg
a. . JUstmg Zygospore
Septa formed
o . Germinating
Innermost layer
protruded
DESMID
Fig.8 Cosmanum Fig.9 Two cells conjugating FiglOSingk mass ^W-^ ^P& Zygospore
b. end view c side view
Figl2 Germinating Zygospore
a. escaping .
b. free
FigJ3Diyidmg into (wonewDesmids
DIATOMS
Fig.lS ' Frustuli/L saavnica conjugating
c. further developed \
a- CeSs Conjugating
b. Zygospores formed
Fig. 14? Diatonuz vulgaris
Gelatinous investment
Side, view
I
in contact
/* j.
Tabes
Zygtispofts opened up
::X
LIFE HISTORr DM6MM
of Conjugatac
Division -
Conjugate form
Zygospore
-Ll.
> >A- fa*v .Atw "Hi,
: *.V--«t ■fc'Tiirf
Engrttvea, Printed and Published by "W & AX Johnston, Edmbrrrgh.
PLATE VL-SPIROGYRA, DESMIDS, and DIATOMS.
(Spirogyra chitjlir after Sachs; DesmiU and Diatom after Oersted.)
Spirogyra (Gr. guros, a ring) is readily recognised under the microscope from the spiral bands of green-coloured protoplasm. It
floats in bright green masses near the surface of clear, fresh waters, such as ponds, and slips through the fingers on attempting to
handle it.
The bands of coloured protoplasm are variable in their number and arrangement. They contain numerous starch-granules and oil-
globules, and a nucleus is present in each cell. This condensed portion of the protoplasm is surrounded by a layer of protoplasm,
which sends delicate threads towards the cell-wall, giving the nucleus a star-like appearance. There is also a layer of protoplasm lining
the cell-wall, to which these threads are attached, and this lining is made very evident by the application of iodine, which causes the
protoplasm to contract and withdraw itself from the wall. The protoplasm is broken up into shreds and bands, because, being unable
to fill the cell, the cavities are filled with cell-sap, and these spreading and increasing finally leave the protoplasm in this scattered form.
Protoplasm thus on the stretch, as it were, displays much of its intimate nature, which is concealed in the more uniform condition.
Multiplication of the cells takes place by Division, and Reproduction by Conjugation.
Fig. 1. Either take a small portion of the water in which odd pieces are floating, or a minute portion of the green mass, and
examine under highest power.
Long filaments made up of cells, with distinct walls and green spiral bands, in which numerous granules are
visible.
Diagram. — Showing arrangement of bands.
Careful focussing is necessary to make out the exact continuity of the bands, and this may be made out better after
treatment with reagents than in natural specimens.
In this particular species the bands are arranged in two spirals, which intersect each other. In S. longata (Fig. 4)
there is but a single spiral band. >
Fig. 2. Stain with Iodine.
Iodine makes the nucleus prominent, turns the starch-granules blue, and causes the layer of protoplasm lining
the cell-wall to contract about the spiral bands. This layer of protoplasm has received the name of "primordial
utricle," but it is simply a portion of the protoplasm which lines the cell-wall.
Fig. 3. As division takes place during night, in order to get cells in the act of division place them in alcohol shortly after mid-
night and examine with highest power.
The cellulose is seen to be extending inwards on each side.
Fig. 4tf. Cell in the living state, with single nucleus and regularly-arranged bands.
b. Protoplasm contracted by the alcohol. Infolding of the protoplasm lining the wall, and cellulose formed in the notch.
Two nuclei formed during division, one for each new cell.
c. Infolding further advanced, which would ultimately form a complete partition across.
FigS. 5 and 6. Conjugation.
Two filaments lay themselves alongside each other, and adjoining cells of each filament throw out pockets
simultaneously towards each other, which eventually meet and form a connecting tube between the two cells. The
contents of one cell pass over and fuse with that of the other, the nuclei also coalescing, thus producing a Zygospore,
as in Fig. 6.
Fig. 7. Germination.
The outer wall of the Zygospore ruptures, and the innermost layer protrudes as a filament, gradually growing
and forming transverse partitions until a proper filament is produced.
Desmids (Gr. desmos, a band) are beautiful, minute, green plants, found in fresh water, and consisting usually of a single cell.
The cells are generally divided into two symmetrical halves, and the coloured protoplasm is arranged in bands.
Multiplication by Division is shown in next Plate. Sexual reproduction by Conjugation is shown here.
Fig. 8. Different views of Cosmarium, showing the two halves and the coloured bands.
Fig. 9. Two cells approach one another, the narrow waist ruptures, and the contents of each fuse.
Fig. 10. A single rounded mass is formed, with the empty halves of each Desmid still adhering to it.
Fig. 11. The Zygospore secretes a cellulose wall, which grows out into beautiful spines.
Fig. 12. The Zygospore escapes from its case and begins to germinate.
Fig. 13. Zygospore divides into two new Desmids, which lie across each other.
Diatoms (Gr. dia, through ; temno, I cut) are so named from the common genus Diatoma, in which the cell-walls, or Frustules (Lat.
frustum, a fragment), remain connected in a zigzag fashion after each division, looking like a continuous structure cut up into a number
of similar fragments. Various forms are sure to be met with while examining fresh-water Algae, Euglena, and the like.
They are unicellular like the Desmids, but are yellowish in colour, have not the characteristic median constriction, and their cell-walls
are silicious, exhibiting on their surface those beautiful markings which are a never-ending source of delight and interest to the micro-
scopist It is owing to this indestructible character of the cell-wall that Diatoms form geological deposits, and their beautiful structure
has been preserved as finely as those living at the present day. The Diatom muds, of a pale straw colour, beneath peat-mosses, have
acquired great importance recently from being used in the manufacture of dynamite, which is a combination of the silicious material with
nitro-glycerine.
They exhibit slow movement from place to place, and exposed to light in considerable numbers they evolve oxygen.
Multiplication takes place by Division, Reproduction by Conjugation.
Fig. 14. Diatoma, a very common form. The cells formed by successive divisions remain slightly attached.
Fig. 15. Conjugation of Frustulia saxonica.
(a.) Two Diatoms beside each other surround themselves with a gelatinous mass, the valves then fall apart like an
opened book, and the contents of each come together, but do not mix.
(b.) Next, the two contents clothe themselves with a delicate membrane, elongate, and form two Zygospores.
(c.) Each Zygospore now forms two valves, and becomes fully formed.
CRYPTOGAMS
DESMID
PLATE VJL
Fig. 2. Mature, cell -front view
Fig. 2. Multiplication, by division into two
Fig. 4. The, same, an Iwur later than Fig. 3.
Pair of Daughter cells
Fig. 3. The above /half-a/i-hour later
Engraved. Printed and Published "by W k AX Jonnston, Zdmbnr^i fe London.
mm
PLATE Vn.— COSMARIUM BOTRYTIS— a Desmid.
(After Dodel-Port and De Bary.)
Desmids (Gr. desmos, a bond) are unicellular Algae, of a green colour, found in fresh-waters. They are remarkable for their
beauty and symmetry of form, exhibiting division into two symmetrical halves, with a bond or connection between the two — hence the
name. They multiply either by division or conjugation. Multiplication by division is the most common, and is that here shown.
Figures X 1450.
Fig. 1. Adult form in front view.
The cell is divided by a deep constriction into two symmetrical halves. Each half looked at from the side is
round, inclining to ovaL The Cell-wall is marked by tuberosities scattered over it, giving it a remarkably elegant,
- sculptured appearance. Each half-cell contains protoplasm coloured green, two round starch grains, each with four
chlorophyll-bands or green-coloured protoplasm lying over it, and several clear vacuoles containing a number of oscillat-
ing granules.
The Protoplasm generally is of a pale-green colour, only it becomes clear in the middle where the nucleus
lies. The plates of protoplasm, the so-called "chlorophyll-bands," are of a dark-green colour, and only one-half the
number are seen in this view.
The Starch-grains are symmetrically disposed, two being on each side of the principal axis.
The Vacuoles are filled with fluid, and lie between the starch-grains and the cell-wall. There are also a number
of oil-drops scattered throughout the mass.
Figs. 2, 3, and 4. Multiplication by Division —
The central constricted portion lengthens, and a delicate partition forms, dividing the whole into two equal
halves, as in Fig. 2.
Next, the daughter-cells thus formed increase in size, and the contents of each original portion begin to pass
over, as in Fig. 3.
Finally, the newly-formed portions assume the dimensions of the old, as in Fig. 4, till, in about ten hours, two
full-grown individuals appear.
CRYPTOGAMS
MUCOR
PLATE VIII.
Fig. 2 Young Sporangium.
Fig.l Branched Mycelium,
bearing Sporangium
t l) Sporangium,
Fig. 3 Ruptured, Sporangium,
Columella,
Engraved. Printed and Publish.ed"byW;!fcAX.To'hJiston, EdinlKirg!i
PLATE VIIL— COMMON BROWN MOULD (Mucor nmcedo).
(Conjugation after Bre/vhi.)
This Mould is to be found in damp, close places growing on a variety of substances. It may be obtained in a form suitable for
examination either from bones, or from potatoes which have been pared and boiled. If the latter are allowed to stand for a few days
in a covered dish, they produce a luxuriant crop. Mucor affords a good illustration of a simple form of the sexual process, in which
two perfectly similar and stationary elements unite or conjugate, and produce a body capable of reproducing the plant.
Nuclei have been observed, although not shown in the drawings.
Fig. 1. Full-grown Mycelium developed from the gonidium.
The gonidium sends out various prolongations, which branch in all directions, so that the entire mycelium is
formed, consisting of a tubular single cell. But at a further stage septa are formed in various parts, so that it
becomes multi-cellular.
From a swelling an % aerial branch arises, terminating in the young sporangium.
Fig. 2. Sporangium containing spores.
The swollen head of the aerial hypha becomes divided off by a partition, and this bulging up into the interior
constitutes the Columella.
The Sporangium-wall becomes coated with needle-like crystals of oxalate of lime.
The Endo-gonidia are formed from the protoplasm in the interior and become coated with a cellulose wall.
The residue of the protoplasm forms an intermediate substance capable of swelling.
Fig. 3. Ruptured Sporangium.
The sporangium having imbibed moisture swells. The outermost layer is brittle but not distensible, so with
the swelling of the innermost layer and the intermediate substance, it bursts, setting free the gonidia, and often
leaving a remnant in the torn collar.
Figs. 4 and 5. Gonidia germinating.
The outer coat of the spore is inelastic, and the inner protrudes as a filament, growing and branching till it
becomes full-grown, as in Fig. i.
Fig. 6. Gonidia are not only produced by aerial hyphae, but not unfrequently from old submerged hyphae. Septa arise close to
one another, forming distinct joints, and these become rounded off, fall away, and are able, under favourable conditions,
to germinate. These bodies are the so-called Mucor-yeast or Chlamy do-spores (Lat. chlamys, a cloak).
Fig. 7. The sexual process — Conjugation.
Branches from two adjacent filaments of the Mycelium, approach, the double wall between them is absorbed,
and on each side of the central portion a partition is formed, thus marking off the Zygospore.
Fig. 8. Ripe Zygospore with thickened granulated outer wall.
Fig. 9. Zygospore germinating.
It produces a single hypha, which sends up an aerial branch forming a Sporangium in which Endo-gonidia are
produced in the ordinary way.
Life History of Mucor. — The mycelium of Mucor produces upright branches in the swollen ends of which gonidia are produced,
giving rise, on germination, to a new Mucor, or submerged hyphae produce gonidia with the same result. This mode of
multiplication is non-sexual, but sexual reproduction also occurs. Two short branches unite end to end, forming a Zygos-
pore. This Zygospore germinates, producing an upright branch with a sporangium at the end, and the gonidia give rise to
the non-sexual generation as at first.
CRYPTOGAMS
VOLVOX GLOBATOR
PLATE IX.
Fig. 3. FertUjxaJtwn of Oogo niiwi Fig. Z. Fortiori of periphery qf Yolvox sphere Fig. 4. Unripe Oosp ore.
Fig. S.Anthmdzum, witli its bundle of A
v )fyXFscapedA7ith£rowids in, active trwvemmb
Fig. S.Antheroxoids killed with iodine
Engraved. Printed and Priblislied Try W! k AX. Johnston, Edinburgh.
PLATE IX.— THE ROLLING SPHERE (Volvox globator).
(From DwM-Port.)
Volvox, so named from its rolling motion, is found in fresh-water pools, and attains a size sufficient to be distinguished by the
naked eye. It is a hollow sphere, and the entire periphery is formed of small cells, each furnished with two cilia. Its slow, stately,
rolling motion is due to the harmonious action of these cilia. The sphere consists of vegetative cells and reproductive cells. It is so
large that it would be a physical impossibility for every cell to undergo a process of division, and as the organization becomes more
complex there arises a necessity for a division of labour. The work, which in a simpler form every portion of the organism was fitted
to do, has now to be distributed and assigned to certain cells. Cells are thus set apart for the work of reproduction from a very early
period, and are much larger than the vegetative cells. Not only so, but the male and female elements are decidedly different ; in the
one case being a tapering portion of protoplasm provided with cilia and motile, in the other a stationary rounded ball of protoplasm.
Thus the two elements of reproduction are becoming more and more distinct. At first they were undistinguishable, as in Mucor;
next distinguishable only in size, as in Pandorina; but now their form as well as their dimensions is different.
When Volvox is kept in a warm room, it has been observed in some cases that the protoplasm strays from the cells and creeps
about in the water after the manner of an amoeba. Here the green protoplasm of a plant behaves like the protoplasm of an animal,
putting forth processes and progressing by reason of the contractility of the protoplasm. It shows that the fundamental difference
between the lower plants and the lower animals consists in the one being free to move and the other not. Plants have their proto-
plasm inclosed in a rigid cell-wall, which curbs and restrains them, and under such conditions the protoplasm is forced to behave
differently.
Fig". 1. Volvox-sphere in the sexual stage.
Reproductive cells. — Female Zoospores are flask-shaped at first, but finally become spherical. This stationary rounded mass of
protoplasm is now called the Oosphere, and with its gelatinous cell-wall is called the Oogonium.
Antheridia, containing bundles of Antherozoids, or sperm-cells.
Fig. 2. Portion of periphery much magnified.
Reproductive cell relatively large, with nucleus and nucleolus. Vegetative cells smaller, often with red "eye-
spot"
Fig. 3. The Antherozoids have bored through the gelatinous investment of the Oogonium, and now surround the Oosphere.
Fig. 4. The outer investment of the unripe Oospore is a firm and spinous Exosporium, while the inner is a gelatinous Endo-
sporium.
Fig. 5. Antheridium, with its gelatinous investment containing the bundle of Antherozoids.
Fig. 6. Iodine kills the Antherozoids, and makes their cilia distinct.
The Antherozoids are of a whip-lash shape, with a pair of cilia towards the rounded end.
Fig. 7. The Antherozoids have a wriggling movement, caused by the expansion and contraction of their bodies, aided by the
cilia.
CRYPTOGAMS
VOLVOX MINOR
PLATE X.
Fig. 3. Exospommi ruptured
Fig.l. Oosphere with fertilizing Amherowiis
Fig. 2 Ripe Oospore
Exosjiorixan
Excsporium
.Arakeroxoids
Fig. 4 Contents of Oospore divided into two
Fig. 5. Division of same into four
LIFE HISTORr DIAGRAM
Gonidia. ( usually 6 )
' Jteproduc&cm.
3 2\
-^Anthaidia withJntheroxoid
Oogorda. with, Oospheres
Fig. 6. Division into sixteen masses
Endosporium,
Fig. 7. Young Volvox
"SnfJraved. Printed and Pabusned "by TV k AX. Johnston, Edinbnr^i & London.
PLATE X.— VOLVOX MINOR.
(From Dodel-Port, after Dr Kirchner.)
Volvox minor produces both male and female cells in the same colony, but they are ready at different times — the female first, the
male afterwards. The germinating Oospore is shown in this Plate, and it is only within the last few years that the process has been
traced. The preliminary act in this life drama is shown in the blending of the Antherozoids with the Oosphere. This sets agoing
that activity in the cell which finally issues in the formation of a young Volvox-sphere.
Figures X 880.
Fig. 1. Oosphere and Antherozoids in contact
The floating Antherozoids find their way to an Oosphere, and readily blend with it This is the process of
Fertilisation — and the result is an Oospore.
Fig. 2. Ripe Oospore invested by two coats — an outer (Exosporium) and an inner (Endosporium). The investment is unlike that
of V. globator in being smooth.
Fig. 3. Exosporium ruptured.
The swelling contents cause the rupture of the outer coat, and the Oospore is now free to undergo division.
Fig. 4. First division into two.
Fig. 5. Division at right angles to the first, forming four daughter-cells.
Fig. 6. After division into eight comes division into sixteen.
The Exosporium in this instance has remained attached.
Fig. 7. Young Volvox formed, green and motile, after about nine divisions altogether in geometrical progression.
Life History of Volvox. — Volvox multiplies non-sexually, a single cell repeatedly dividing and producing a new colony, or there
is sexual reproduction by Antheridia and Oogonia. The Antheridia or male cells are larger than the vegetative cells,
and their contents break up into Antherozoids. The Oogonia or female cells are at first flask-shaped, but latterly
become spherical, each containing a rounded mass of protoplasm — the Oosphere. The Antherozoids floating in the
water ultimately come into contact with a liberated Oogonium, bore through its gelatinous wall, and being merely
protoplasm destitute of any investment, they blend with the Oosphere, and so produce a body ready to germinate, now
called the Oospore. The future history of the Oospore is indicated in this Plate, where it is seen by repeated
divisions to form a young Volvox
CRYPTOGAMS
VAUCHERIA AND (EDOGONIUM
PLATE XL
n>\j&r Zoooonuhum
Zoogonufiur?, //({JfiK escaping
m
7 ilanmt Fig. 2 Zoogonidia VAUCHERIA i?M Zoogomdumi germinating
/s\\ fki H/ h enlarged. <• forrmrw SPaxoids
.7 r'ormiriQ jjSjp •'
Gmmdar
protoplasm
Zoooorudiurn
Cfflulost: v/aH
Fig. 5 Reproductive, Organs of mother Species
Aniluridiitm
Fig.4Eeprodncuye Organs ofVsessilis
d)ogon?it/n
Oogonium.
AnthcriJium,
I LIFE HISTORY DIAGRAM
Zoogonidia
Fig. 6 Oospore germinating
branch ending
uiAntheridium,
Oospore.
Vaia^tenu
nthwozoids
2 Oosphen-
Fg. 7 PoWmofYoung Fikwwit
Ifig.8 Filament with Zoogonidia. CEDQGDNIU M
y^K Fig. 9 Young Plant fhmgerminajzng ZoogoniFiicm
ZoOQi
Fig.10 } Portion of Male Filnnwit
FigUPortwTLofFminkPiJam&ii
with unripe Oogonia
blended, with. Oosphere.
Fg.lZFemaJzFdmenlwudkripe Oogonicz
Antherozoid
Fig. 14 Ripe Oospores
Dwarf-male,
attached.
Oogonia^
AnOieroxoid free.
fc9L .
Fig. 17 Young CMogonnan
Dwarf-male with 2Jntheroxoids
Fig.15 Oospore dividing Fig. 16 Zoogonuha, (4)
sphere protruding
•am. Oogonium
LIFE HISTORY DIAGRAM
Zoogonidia.
Otdog onium.'
Zoogonidia,' 4)
Aritherozo ids direct
'wiufmaJes/bmnngMtfiennoida
ZOosphert inside Oogonium.
Oospore
Engraved. Printed and Pubnshed "by W. & AX Johnston, Edmbnr^b. k London.
PLATE XL— VAUCHERIA and (EDOGONIUM.
Vancheria.
Vaucheria, named in honour of the Swiss botanist Vaucher, occurs usuallv on damp soils as a green film, but may readily be
obtained from the surface earth of flower-pots kept in green-houses. It is a long filamentous green Alga, consisting of a single tubular
cell which branches, and also forms root-like structures.
Fig. 1. Take a small portion of the green film, tease it out in a drop of water, and examine under microscope.
Filament showing the granular protoplasm lining interior of tube.
Multiplication —
Fig. 2. End of branches forming Zoogonidia.
These are formed during night, by the protoplasm, towards the end of a tube, collecting itself into an oval mass
and becoming separate from the rest by a partition. The end of the tube gives way, allowing this oval mass to
escape into the surrounding moisture, where it revolves and progresses by means of delicate cilia with which the
whole surface is covered. The cilia, however, soon disappear, and the motionless mass then sinks to the bottom.
Fig. Za, b, c. Germinating Zoogonidium.
It gives rise to filaments at two or even three points, which branch and grow to the size of the parent
Delicate transparent branches are also formed (as in c) which serve to fix the plant to solid bodies, and thus
partly serve the purpose of rootlets.
Reproduction —
Figs. 4 and 5. Male and Female Organs — Antheridia and Oogonia.
Both organs arise as branches, sometimes as in Fig. 4, or as in Fig. 5, where a branch ends in a hooked
Antheridium, with an Oogonium on each side below it
The contents of the Antheridium break up into minute particles of protoplasm, each furnished with two cilia
and motile — called Antherozoids.
The Oogonium forms a single body in its interior— the Oosphere— which is a portion of the protoplasm
marked off from the rest by a partition. It is relatively large and motionless, and the antherozoids find access to
it through a rupture in the cell-wall, thus converting it into an Oospore.
Fig. 6. Germinating Oospore.
The Oospore is surrounded by a three-layered membrane and, after resting for a few months, the contents pro-
trude to form a branching tube.
Life History. — Vaucheria either multiplies by Zoogonidia, or reproduces itself by means of Antherozoids and Oospheres. The
naked protoplasm of the Antherozoids blends with the naked protoplasm of the Oosphere, and the result is a body capable
of germination— an Oospore. This surrounds itself with a membrane, becomes detached along with the Oogonium, and is
finally set free by the dissolution of the Oogonium. After a period of rest it germinates and gives rise to the original
branched structure.
(Edogonium.
(After Juniiv/i.)
(Edogonium (Gr. oideo, to swell; gone, seed) derives its name from the fact that the joints of the filament swell out to form the
female organs. It may be looked for in waters where Conferva and such organisms are found, and occurs as patches of green filaments,
composed of cells attached end to end.
Fig. 7. Young Filament, consisting of a row of cells. %
The green-coloured protoplasm is arranged in stars and stripes, and each cell has a distinct nucleus.
Multiplication —
Fig. 8. Zoogonidia produced in the cells.
The protoplasmic contents of each cell form a single rounded mass — the Zoogonidium, which escapes by a fissure
in the wall, and revolves and progresses by means of the band of cilia.
Fig. 9. Germination of Zoogonidium
The zoogonidium loses its cilia and settles down, producing from the colourless ciliated end a root-like struc-
ture for fixing the plant, while the opposite end divides and forms a row of cells.
Reproduction —
Fig. 10. Male Filament
The contents of certain cells become orange-yellow and produce the Antherozoids, which resemble the Zoo-
gonidia in form and motion, differing mainly in the colour. In some cases, however, zoogonidia are formed
in the cells, which become rudimentary plants, and the sole object of these Dwarf-males, as they are called, is to
produce Antherozoids. They attach themselves to the Oogonium, as in Fig. 12, and the upper portion separates
like a lid to allow the antherozoids to escape.
Figs. 11 and 12. Female Filaments. _
The joints here and there are swollen, forming the Oogonia, which contain the Oospheres. The ripe Oosphere
consists of a coloured and a small colourless portion, which protrudes through a small opening.
Fig. 13. Process of Fertilisation.
An Antherozoid blends with an Oosphere, and the result is an Oospore.
Fig. 14. Ripe Oospore.
It becomes surrounded with a membrane, and assumes an orange-red colour. The swelling of the Oospore
finally ruptures the Oogonium, and the oospore escapes as a naked mass of protoplasm.
Figs. 15, 16, and 17. Germinating Oospores. ,.,,..,
The germinating Oospore does not grow in the usual way, but surrounds itself with a new membrane, and the
contents divide into four portions generally. The Zoospores thus formed are set free by the dissolution of the mem-
brane, and produce a young plant, as in Fig. 17.
Life History. — (Edogonium multiplies by Zoogonidia, or is reproduced by Antherozoids and Oospheres. An Antherozoid, produced
either directly from the joint of a filament or through the intermediate agency of Dwarf-males, blends with the Oosphere and
produces an orange-red Oospore. This Oospore does not directly produce the plant, but divides into usually four Zoospores,
like the zoogonidia, except in the matter of colour, and each germinates and grows into a filament, as in Fig. 17.
CRYPTOGAMS
POTATO DISEASE— FUNGUS
PLATE XII.
Fig.1 Potato -leaf with friz Fimgus
Fig. 2 Hyphz projecting
from. Storruz
Fig. 3 ffyphi furdu r deveL •: \ \ 1
Engraved. Printed and PubHsned "by "Wife AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
PLATE XH— POTATO-DISEASE FUNGUS (Phytophthora infestans).
(Principally after De Bar;/.)
The Potato-disease Fungus was formerly known as Peronospora, but the fuller investigation of its history has caused it to be placed
in the genus Phytophthora. Although its life-history has been traced to a certain extent, yet, as in the case of Rust of Wheat and
other parasitic fungi, a satisfactory mode of dealing with the disease has not yet been found.
It is but fair to add that some consider this fungus-growth as a consequence and not as a cause of the disease. Ihey maintain
that a fungus cannot establish itself upon a living plant, until that plant has become enfeebled; and further, that before any appearance
of the disease in the potato could be detected by the eye or microscope, it was possible to reveal it by a simple chemical test This
was done by using a minute borer and taking a thread of the potato bored out and placing it in a flask with milk in a warm closet If
the milk curdled in a very short time, the potato was found to be diseased; and if healthy, no curdling took place. The diseased potato
soon showed signs of decay and of premature germination, and so the actual disease is supposed to be antecedent to the appearance
of the fungus.
Fig. 1. Diseased Leaf of Potato.
The infected parts of the leaf turn black.
FigS. 2 and 3. Hypha bearing Stylo-gonidia. .... .
The filament bores its way through the tissues of the plant, absorbs and appropriates their nutriment, and
gradually traverses the whole plant Eventually it puts forth hypha? through the stomata of the leaf, which branch
and bear capsules styled Stylo-gonidia.
Figs. 4, 5, and 6. The contents of the Stylo-gonidium break up into separate portions (usually six), which escape by rupturing
the wall.
Fig. 7. Each Zoogonidium possess a pair of cilia, and through the medium of rain or dew may find their way from one plant
to another and thus infect a whole field.
Fig. 8. Zoogonidium germinating. . ... ., , , ,
The inner membrane protrudes as a filament, penetrating the epidermis, and begins to ramify through the
underlying tissue.
Life History— The fungus traversing the potato-plant bears aerial hyphae with Stylo-gonidia, the contents of which break up into
Zoogonidia. These motile Zoogonidia, on reaching the epidermis of a potato-plant, germinate to form a uncellular filament
which branches among the tissues and becomes like the parent-form. This is the non-sexual mode of multiplication, but a
sexual process has not yet been observed.
CRYPTOGAMS
BLADDER WRACK AND TANGLE
PLATE XIII.
Fig.lFums vesiadosus
Concep&tcLc
Air-bladders
Jinaiehes,-
Fig. Z Section of Conceptaxk.
Opening
Fig. 3 Anlheridia.
W. Anthtridial Eairs
V \Terminal cell
Antheridial 'Hairs
i. Anduru&t/n. from, tht side
• . ■
Oogonia.
Young
Ardheridium
Fig. 4 Oogonium surrounded by Eairs
Fig. 5 Oogonium openina
Fig. 7 Germination
of Oospore
Stem.
HISTOLOCV OF FUCUS & LAMIN ARIA
Fig. 10 Transverse section of *Zaminaruz
Fig. 8 Transverse section ofFucus nodosus
b. portion, enlarged
a. natural size
Fig. 9 Cells from interior under high power
Fig 6 Oosphere surrounded
by Jntherozoids
Antheroxoids
LIFE HISTORY DIAGRAM
Fucus
Oospore
ia and
Oogonia.
Fig. II Cells in longitudinal section
(*Z70)
Intercellular
gehninous suistanc:
Engraved. Printed and Published "by W &AJK. Johnston, Edinburgh.
PLATE XIII— COMMON BLADDER WRACK (Fucus vesiculosa) and TANGLE (Laminaria digitata).
Fucus (Gr. phukos, sea-weed) and Laminaria (Lat lamina, a thin plate) may be taken as representatives of the brown-coloured sea-
weeds. They are common objects of the shore wherever rocks abound.
In Fucus, the flat expansion or Thallus is dichotomously branched, and attached to the rocks by suckers, so that there is a super-
ficial resemblance to stem, roots, and leaves. But it is only superficial, since the whole plant is bathed with sea-water from which, and
not from the soil or air, every part withdraws its appropriate nourishment. The root-like portion consists of delicate hair-like branches
with thin cell-walls. It acts like a boy's sucker; it can be pressed very close to the rock, and the pressure of the water, just like the
air in the previous case, keeps the two together.
The stem-like narrow portion, as well as the more expanded upper portion, is slimy all over, and this is due to the cell-walls of the
outer cells becoming mucilaginous.
The air-bladders serving the purpose of floats contain various gases.
The reproductive organs are borne by the swollen ends of branches and developed in little cavities known as Conceptacles. These
are seen by the naked eye as little elevations with openings, and have been formed by a pusning-in or indentation of the exterior.
Each dimple or Conceptacle contains Antheridia with Antherozoids or male organs, and Oogonia with Oospheres or female organs.
The most common species are F vesiculosus (Lat. vesicula, a little bladder) with a midrib running along each part of the thallus,
and air-bladders arranged in a double row; F nodosus, with air-bladders arranged singly and no midrib; and F. serratus (Lat. serra,
a saw) destitute of air-bladders and margins toothed.
Laminaria digitata (Lat. digitus, the finger) is so named because the expanded portion is split up like the fingers of the hand. It
has a root-like portion consisting of numerous branching stalks expanded at their attached end; a stem-like portion which is perennial,
and increases in thickness by concentric layers added year after year ; and the split-up leaf-like portion which is renewed every year.
Multiplication takes place by Zoogonidia developed from the expanded portion. Sexual reproduction is as yet unknown.
Fig. 1. Portion of plant, natural size.
Thallus branching in a forked manner or dichotomously, with a well-marked midrib.
Air-bladders occurring in a double series.
Fertile branches swollen and studded over with little papillae.
Fig. 2. Make a transverse section of a fertile branch, so as to get one of these little papillae in section which are called Con-
ceptacles. There is a confused mass of hairs, amongst which may be seen the male and female organs. The close-
set cells of the exterior are continued right round the Conceptacle, thus suggesting an infolding of the exterior and not
an interior cavity afterwards opening externally.
Antheridia, branching hairs.
Oogonia, swollen hairs.
Figs. 3 and 4. Take some of the yellow colouring matter from Conceptacle and mix with salt-water to see Antheridial hairs and
Oogonia clearly
Antheridial hairs repeatedly branched, the ends of the branches swollen and filled with yellow granular matter.
When ripe the contents of these cells consist of Antherozoids each provided with two cilia whereby they move rapidly
about in the water.
Oogonia are globular bodies, derived from a single cell and producing eight Oospheres. The protoplasm of
the surrounding hairs and stalk is broken up into threads, because of the numerous vacuoles formed, owing to the
cells getting too large for their contents, as in Spirogyra.
Fig. 5. Oogonium discharging its contents.
The wall of the Oogonium consists of two layers — an outer, inelastic, which splits, and an inner, extensible,
which stretches a deal before giving way. The Oospheres are discharged into the conceptacle, then into the sur-
rounding water.
Fig. 6. The liberated Oospheres meet with Antherozoids which surround them, blend with them, and convert them into Oospores,
ready to germinate.
Fig. 7. Germination of an Oospore.
It first becomes pear-shaped, then divides into two, and the tapering end soon develops organs of attachment.
The upper end divides further and further in all the dimensions of space until the adult form is attained.
Life History. — Fucus reproduces itself sexually by Antheridia and Oogonia, either produced together or on separate plants. The
Antherozoids of the Antheridia fertilise the Oospheres of the Oogonia after being set free, and each Oospore thus produced-
may develop a new plant.
Histology.
Fig. 8. Make a transverse section of the narrow stem-like portion, and examine in alcohol or glycerine under low power.
Cells close-set towards exterior, but arranged loosely in interior.
Fig. 9. Stain transverse section with magenta, and examine under high power.
Cells are round, oval, or elongated, and cell-walls very gelatinous.
Fig. 10. Cut across Tangle and examine— -first, with naked eye; second, a transverse section under low power.
(a.) Outer yellowish-brown portion, and inner colourless portion.
(b.) Outer coloured portion, small and close-set cells. In old specimens there is a ring of oval slime-cavities pretty
near one another. Inner almost colourless portion of larger cells.
Fig. 11. Make a longitudinal section, and examine interior cells as in Fucus.
The elongated cells are bounded by a firm inner membrane, and between this membrane, of two adjoining cells,
there is a gelatinous intercellular substance often arranged in layers. Short Pits occur here and there in the
membrane.
CRYPTOGAMS
PEZIZA AND PENICILLIUM
PLATE XIV.
Fig. 2 PortwTL ofEymmbm PEZIZA
FaraoKyses
Pezzza scutellata ^ g A?l Ascus ^ Ascospores
Fig. 4 development of A s < i
d
■
C n
Fig.5Reproauctiye Organs of T. con/kens
a., time, of Fertdixa&on- b. .after Fertilization
I a-
PENICILLIUM
Fig. 7 GermmaMg Goiwdici
Fig. 6 Fertile Eypha ofFmMfa.m(hig~hfy magnified)
Sfylo-gortidut
Fig. 8 Sexual process
Carpogonixim. Anfheridium.
Fig. 10 Asci with, Asco spores
Fig.ll Gerrninating Ascospores
Fig. 9 Transverse section of Sporoca/p
Aerial. Bypha,
LIFE HISTORY DIAGRAM
Stylo -gonidia
ichotomovsly dividing BypTui
Vabuo/M
Ascospores
contained- in. Asci
ntheridia and
Carpogonia,
Sport Fruit
Eagravfd. Printed and Pablished by V.kAX. Johnston, Edinburgh.
PLATE XIV.— PEZIZA AND PENICILLIUM.
Peziza.
The Tezizse are usually found on decaying vegetable matter, such as rotten wood, old cow-dung, dunghills, and the like. They
also grow among moss, and may occur on growing plants. The Spore-fruit, which results from Fertilisation, is disc-like or cup-shaped,
stalked or sessile, and may be black or white, red or yellow, etc. The mycelium ramifies through the substance on which it grows ;
for instance, the bright green colour often staining as it were decayed wood, is due to these mycelial threads.
Tig. 1. Piece of rotten wood with Spore-fruits of Peziza upon it
This specimen is pretty common in such situations, and has a brightly coloured spore-fruit with stiff hairs on
its margin.
Fig. 2. Scrape off with a needle a little of the surface of the spore-fruit, tease out in water, and examine with high power.
A number of radiating filaments will be seen, many slender, fewer swollen. The slender filaments are barren,
while the swollen filaments contain spores to the number of eight. The barren filaments are called Paraphyses,
and the spore-bearing filaments Asci (Gr. Askos, a bag), hence the spores are Ascospores.
Pig". 3. Ascus and Ascospore detached.
The eight Spores are usually arranged obliquely, following one another, and in the centre of each is a
Nucleus.
Tig. 4. Formation of Spores in the Asci of P. confluens.
In the early stage (a) the small sac is filled with granular protoplasm and a few vacuoles, but no nucleus.
Next, a nucleus appears with a nucleolus (fr). By repeated division this original nucleus becomes divided into two,
four, and finally eight nuclei (/). The protoplasm now begins to aggregate around each as a preliminary operation
in the formation of the spores, until finally the ripe spores are produced (//). Each spore is now surrounded by a
firm membrane, the nucleus disappears, and a small oil-globule appears at each end.
Fig. 5. Reproduction of P. confluens. (The Male and Female organs are coloured artificially — male, red ; female, blue.)
Adjoining branches of the mycelium form respectively the slender Male organ or Antheridium, and the swollen
Female organ or Carpogonium. The free end of the Antheridium comes into contact with the hooked end of the
Carpogonium (a), and, as a result of Fertilisation, a Spore-fruit is formed with innumerable spores. This Spore-fruit
consists not only of the fertilised Carpogonium, but of an investment of delicate hyphae (6) which grow and branch
till they finally form the coloured cup on the surface of which the Asci lies.
Penicillium.
Common Green Mould or Penicillium (Lat. penicillum, a painter's brush) is so named from the brush-like form of the fertile
hyphae, bearing innumerable gonidia which give the familiar greyish-green hue to the mould. These minute gonidia on reaching a
suitable medium are able to germinate, hence it is that the mould spreads with such wonderful rapidity and appears so constantly
where the conditions are favourable. But even under unfavourable conditions, the mould can still survive and reproduce itself. If the
supply of Oxygen is checked, so that the ordinary course of life cannot be run, then it resorts to a sexual process, just as a plant
might throw itself into flower when food-supplies are limited.
Fig. 6. Remove a small piece of the crust with its green covering and tease out in water. Fertile hyphae may be met with.
Hypha branching, contents granular with vacuoles, divided here and there by septa.
Fertile hypha branching regularly, the terminal branches breaking up into gonidia. • The end portion of this
small branch rounds itself off and becomes detachable, the new end repeats the same process, and so on till a row
is formed.
Fig. 7. Sow some of the gonidia in a clear fluid, such as Pasteur's, to observe germination.
The Gonidium at first is spherical, but when germination begins, one or more protuberances appear which grow-
in length, divide, and form septa. Continued growth produces a mycelium bearing fertile hyphae, and so the life-
history repeats itself.
Fig. 8. The Sexual process has only been lately discovered, and occurs under peculiar conditions, as yet attained only by arti-
ficial means. The Male and Female organs are formed by short branches — the Antheridium being simple and the
Carpogonium coiled like a cork-screw. These two come together and produce a Spore-fruit which is about the size
of a pin-head.
Fig". 9. The Spore-fruit is naturally of a yellowish colour, and consists of a mass of Spore-bearing hyphae, enclosed by sterile
hyphae.
Tig. 10. Portion of Spore-bearing tissue removed from Spore-fruit
(a) Asci, containing the Ascospores.
(o) Ascospore, separate.
Fig. 11. Germinating Ascospore producing a mycelium like the Gonidium.
Life History of Penicillium. — Upright hyphae give off numerous small branches, which become rounded off at their ends to form
gonidia. These gonidia germinate and give rise to a new plant This is non-sexual multiplication, but sexual reproduction
has recently been discovered by Brefeld.
When the plant is deprived of air and light, the development of gonidia is interfered with, and sexual organs appear.
Two short hyphae lay themselves together — Antheridium and Carpogonium — and the result of their union is a Spore-fruit, in
which Spores are afterwards formed, contained in bags or Asci. Each Ascospore may germinate and produce a mycelium
bearing aerial hyphae as before.
CRYPTOGAMS
ICELAND MOSS
PLATE XV.
Fiq.l. Plant -natural size
Apothedaan
Fig. ZYerttcal sectixm, of Thai/as
Cortical layer
Dense. Lay
T ,airer H
w^m
Medullary layer
Cortical layer
I
Fig. 4. Margin of Th alius with Spermogonza
Spermogonza
Fig. 3. Vertical, section ofApothecium,
with underlying Phallus (* 6 00 ' )
Fig. 5. Asci with- As oospores
Paraphyses-
Asci
Cornelia.....
J
Fig. 6. Sperrrwgone
— •'« « ' Spermaluz
Engraved. Printed and Published by W St AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
PLATE XV— ICELAND MOSS (Cetraria islandica).
The Licheri-thallns is regarded, according to the most recent investigations, as forming not one individual organism but a kind of
composite structure. It is a commensal organism, formed by the partnership of different individuals preying upon, and at the same time
mutually accommodating, each other. The hyphae form one of the plants which is an Ascomycetous Fungus, and the gonidia or green
cells form another plant which belongs to the Palmellaceous Algae, in this instance, viz. — Cystococcus humicola. These Algae living among
the mycelial filaments of the Fungus supply them with nutriment, and receive in return that amount of moisture and protection, which
enables them to grow and multiply. The hyphae in fact are parasites upon the gonidia, abstracting from them the materials they manu-
facture as green plants. But the gonidia, though thus kept in check are not exterminated, and the survivors go on growing and multiplying,
so that there is always an excess over and above the wants of the lichen. As the gonidia multiply so do the hyphae, and the scale on
which the business is carried on necessarily becomes larger. It is a combination for the supply of continually increasing wants, which
almost suggests forethought in its striking adaptation.
Fig. 1. The so-called Iceland Moss is a Lichen, growing on the ground with its thallus erect It may be procured in the dry
state from the chemist, as it is used medicinally.
The lobes of the thallus are numerous and tufted, and the edges are fringed with short teeth. The so-called
"fructification" is rare, and is called an Apothecium, because the surface of the receptacle is very slightly concave
(when the receptacle is excessively concave, it is called a Perithecium).
Pig". 2. The Thallus or flat expansion of the Lichen shows in vertical section several distinct layers : —
Cortical or superficial layer of closely applied thick-walled cells.
Gonidial layer, a looser layer of intermingled hyphae in the meshes of which are entangled green rounded
cells — the "gonidia."
Medullary layer of thread-like cells forming the bulk of the thallus.
Cortical layer as above
Pig. 3. Vertical section of the " Fructification " and underlying Thallus.
Asci containing Ascospores originating from the colourless filaments here called the Sub-hymenial layer.
Paraphyses are barren filaments.
. Pigs. 4 and 5. The Asci are club-shaped and the Ascospores are elliptical.
Pig. 6. Spermogonia occur on the margin of the thallus and produce Spermatia.
Life History. — The Sub-hymenial layer of the Thallus produces numerous Asci, each containing several Ascospores. The Asci
absorb moisture as they ripen, causing their membranes to swell, until finally the tension is so great, at the top of the tube,
that it gives way and the sudden collapse jerks out the spores. The moist spores are accompanied by hymenial gonidia,
and put forth several embryo-tubes, some of which lay hold of the substratum, and the others embrace the gonidia and ramify
to form the thallus of the Lichen.
The Spermogonia are considered to be Male Organs ; and as they appear before the fructification is formed, it is very
probable that a Female Organ lies imbedded in the thallus, to which the Spermatia are conveyed by water. In this case the
fructification would be developed as a result of fertilisation.
CRYPTOGAMS
RUST OF WHEAT
PLATE XVI.
Fwl Barberry 'Leaves ^irxkAeddounn fruits
on. -under surface
Tig. 2 Transverse section of Barberry-' leaf wizkJe-cuiaaru fruits
Engraved. Printed and Published by"W& AJ£. Johnston, Edinburgh.
PLATE XVI.— RUST OF WHEAT.
(After Dodel-Port, Ik Bary, and Tulatne.)
The Rust of Wheat is interesting on various grounds, for the varied forms it assumes, and the change of quarters it delights in, as
well as for the effects produced by it. It has a curious history, owing to the fact that its connection with the Barberry was recognised
by farmers in practice long before scientific men had traced or even dreamt of the connection. It was found out that in going its various
rounds in order to complete its life history, there existed the same relation between Rust and Barberry as between Lodger and Boarder.
Although so well investigated, no remedy has yet been found for its ravages.
Fig. 1. Leaves of Barberry bearing yellow or orange patches on stalk and blade — the Aecidium-fruit.
Towards the end of summer these patches appear, called Barberry rust.
Fig. 2. Transverse section of such a leaf.
The mycelium of the fungus has penetrated through the tissue of the leaf, extracting nourishment and draining
the leaf by the way. It has also produced a fructification of two kinds ; one on the upper side, the other on the
under side of the leaf.
The Spermogonia are flask-shaped bodies on the upper surface, producing numerous filaments called Spermatia.
The Aecidium-fruit on the under surface is a globular body surrounded by a wall or peridium, which on open-
ing allows the spores to escape.
Fig. 3. Aecidio-spore germinating.
It sends out two filaments, which branch and form the Mycelium of the Rust.
Fig. 4. Streaks of a rusty colour appear on the surface of the leaf owing to the Uredo-spores bursting through.
Fig. 5. Transverse section of leaf.
The mycelium ramifies through the tissues of the leaf; and towards the surface, branches produce the Uredo-
spores. These cause a swelling, and the epidermis ruptures, when the spores are easily blown about by the wind.
Fig. 6. Uredo-spores produced late in the summer along with Teleuto-spores. The double coat of the Uredo-spore is relatively
thin, and covered with minute projections, while that of the Teleuto-spore is thick and brown.
Fig. 7. Uredo-spore germinating, and giving rise to a branched mycelium in the leaf, which again reproduces Uredo-spores, and
so on.
Fig. 8. Teleuto-spore germinating.
This spore is two-celled, and was formerly supposed to belong to a different fungus, which was named Puccinia
graminis.
It forms a branching pro-mycelium of several cells, from the branches of which Sporidia arise.
Fig. 9. A Sporidium falling on the Barberry, when it is to be found in hedge-rows adjoining corn-fields, germinates on the under
surface of the leaf, and produces the form in Fig. i.
Life History. — The Cluster-cups, or Aecidium-fruits on the Barberry, produce numerous Aecidio-spores, which germinate on the
damp leaves of Wheat There a mycelium is formed, the Uredo, which gives rise to Uredo-spores, forming the rusty powder
on the surface of the leaf. The Uredo-spores, or Summer-spores, may in turn germinate on a leaf of Wheat, produce a
mycelium giving rise to Spores, and this course may be repeated over and over again, spreading the Rust till the harvest
season. Then Teleuto-spores, or Winter-spores, are produced, which germinate next spring, and develope Sporidia at the end
of branches of a short .filament, which can form the Aecidium-fruits on the young Barberry leaf, as in Fig. i.
The Rust of Wheat may appear even before the appearance of Barberry leaves, owing to the Uredo-spores persisting
during the winter and directly germinating on the young Wheat
CRYPTOGAMS
MUSHROOM AND RED SEA-WEED
PLATE XVII.
U S H R M
Fig. 2 You/ig Mushrooms
fa,/ entire
Fig. 4 Section of Old
/bj in, section.
Slits m which, gills appear
Fig. 3 YerticalSecUoTiof
more aa\aricedMus?iroom
GeneraLTtssiie.
Sub-h/meneallayer
Symenium
free edge
Fig. 5 Section of Sill
more highly magnified
Central Tissue.
Tly ce.llu.riL
Fig. 8 Female Plant ofPotysiphorua
ta-s
Fig. 6 Spore germinating fx3ooj
fcj
Fig. 7 SerminoMg ScUrotuiM
in longitudinal Section
RED SEA WEED
Fig. $ Growing points ofFbcamuun
Spore fruit
with, an. Investment
Sclerottum.
Fg. 10 TetragoniduL ofFolysighoma
.. Growing Point,
Fig
J] Successive Stages of development
'.' ' Tctragomdia,
. Spaces from, which
' Tetragorvidia. have escaped,
^^
Engraved, Printed and Published "byWSc AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
PLATE XVIL— COMMON MUSHROOM (Agaricus campestris) and RED SEA- WEED (Polysiphonia).
Mushroom.
The Pezizae are distinguished by producing their spores in the interior of cells called Asci, and the Mushroom produces its spores
on the exterior of enlarged cells called Basidia, hence the name applied to the group — Basidiomycetes. The common Mushroom may
be found towards the end of summer in open pastures, but it can be raised from spawn at any season of the year. Mushroom spawn
simply consists of the mycelium mixed up with decaying organic matter, and under proper treatment, as to moisture and temperature,
mushrooms may be produced.
Although the mushroom belongs to the most highly organised group of Fungi, just as the Red Sea-weed belongs to the highest
group of Alga, yet no sexual stage has yet been discovered.
Fig. 1. Mushroom, full grown.
The mycelium consists of interlacing threads spread out in the mould, and what is called the Mushroom is
really the Spore-fruit arising from this mycelium.
Spore-fruit composed of — Stalk with a remnant surrounding it near the top, of what once extended to the
margin of the Cap.
Cap spread out like an umbrella, and bearing on its under surface the radiating
plate-like Gills.
Fig". 2. Young Mushroom, entire and in section.
The cap and stalk are already roughly indicated.
The section shows the commencement of the gill-chamber, which is really a hollow ring in which the gills are
formed.
Fig. 3. Mushroom more advanced — in section.
Velum (Lat. a veil), forming a floor to the gill-chamber from the roof of which the gills are developed.
Fig. 4. Remove a gill, embed it in paraffin, and make a section of it.
The centre is occupied by mycelial filaments closely packed and adhering side by side, and towards each
surface this tissue becomes denser on the outside, giving rise to the Basidia.
Fig. 5. Section under high power.
Towards the surface the cells get rounded, and the superficial layer of cells is enlarged to form Basidia. The
Basidium has four slender processes (two only shown), at the ends of which the spores are developed and easily
detached.
Fig. 6. Germination of Spore of Coprinus. — The spores . may be readily obtained by laying the Spore-fruit upon a sheet of
paper, then by placing over the spores a glass slide moistened by the breath, they may be lifted up and examined.
The spore placed in a drop of an appropriate fluid on a slide begins to germinate in a few hours by putting
forth a delicate filament. This grows, becomes divided by transverse partitions and branches, thus forming a
mycelium. In the course of from nine to twelve days the Spore-fruit arises directly from the older mycelial
filaments.
Fig. 7. In some cases, however, a Sclerotium is formed first. — This consists originally of an aerial branch, which divides and
branches on all sides till it forms a small ball of closely packed and interosculating filaments. One of the surface-
cells grows out and becomes the young spore-fruit, which, in this instance, is entirely invested by the velum.
Life History. — It is very tempting to suppose that the Spore-fruit is the result of a sexual process, but as experiments specially
directed to that point have failed to show any trace of it, it is now generally believed that in the whole of the Basidio-
mycetes the Spore-fruit arises directly from the mycelium or indirectly from a Sclerotium.
The stages through which they pass would be briefly as follows : — the Mycelium (or Spawn) produces a Spore-fruit
directly, which bears the numerous spores from which the mycelium is again produced, and so on ; or, in some cases, the
Spore-fruit is preceded by a Sclerotium.
Red Sea-Weed.
Polysiphonia (Gr. polus, many ; siphon, a tube) is one of the Red Sea-weeds — plants usually of a graceful form and beautiful colour,
so that they attract attention. This form is found about low-water mark, attached to rocks, the stalks of the Tangle, etc., and although
so finely divided, it may be removed from the water without collapsing. These divisions might be regarded as of the nature of leaves,
just as in the next form considered (Chara). There are three distinct forms of this plant, all agreeing in general appearance, but
differing in their reproductive habit — the Non-sexual, the Male and the Female; and it is the first of these which will be considered
now.
Fig. 8. Plant much divided.
Fig. 9. Plocamium is one of the feathery red sea-weeds, and when simply spread out in water under the microscope, it shows
clearly the single growing cell — cells a little further back dividing longitudinally to produce breadth, and a single
cell growing laterally and dividing to form one of the numerous branches. The cell-walls are gelatinous.
Fig. 10. Portion of Non-sexual plant showing Tetragonidia
They appear as little round balls, but under a high power division is seen. The four gonidia do not lie in
one plane, but are arranged like a tetrahedron; hence, either one or three divisions may be seen.
The gonidia escape by a parting between the peripheral cells.
Fig. 11. Germination. — The Gonidium elongates, divides transversely, one of the divisions serving for attachment, the other
growing and dividing longitudinally and transversely, and branching, till it becomes a parent plant
CRYPTOGAMS
RED SEA- WEED
PLATE XVII I.
Tig. 1. Portion of Mole Plant (* 430 )
pex. of Branch,
Antheridium, as a. single. cdL
Pig. Z. Portion of P'emals Plocnz (* 4:2 )
'Antkerozoids
Oosphert
Oospore,
Engraved, Printed and Published "by ¥ & AX Johnston, Edinburgh. & London.
PLATE XVm.— RED SEA- WEED (Polysiphonia Subulata)— continued.
Fig. 1. Male Plant
Antheridia, or male sexual organs, are cone-like, supported by a short stalk.
Forked hair on the outside of each, protecting it
Fig. la. Ripe Antheridium in optical section ( x 430).
There is a basal-cell forming the Stalk, a row of cells in the centre forming an Axis, and the mother-cells of
the Anthefozoids : are grouped around this Axis. The Antherozoids are spherical motionless masses of protoplasm,
discharged into the surrounding water by the bursting of the ripe mother-cell.
Figs. 2 and 3. Female Plant
Carpogonia, or female sexual organs, are obovate, when ready for fertilisation, and consist of three principal
parts —
1. Foot or attachment
2. Fertile spore-forming part This is the swollen portion, and consists of a central cell surrounded by
a number of peripheral cells.
3. Hair apparatus, consisting of the forked hair and the Trichogyne (Gr. trichos, hair ; gone, seed).
Fig. 4. The process of Fertilisation is extremely interesting, beqause of the part that Infusoria have recently been found to play
in it The antherozoids, discharged into the surrounding sea-water by the bursting of the ripe antheridia, are passively
floated about by the waves, since they are motionless in themselves, and they may accidentally come into contact with
the trichogyne of a female plant ; but their chances are greatly increased by the action of unconscious agents, such as
Infusoria, which create currents in the water in the neighbourhood of the female organs.
Vorticella, or the Bell Animalcule, is a stalked Infusorian, attached to this red sea-weed. The stalk may either
be lengthened out, as in the drawing, or shortened by being coiled into a spiral. The bell is surmounted by a
crown of cilia which move in a definite order, so as to cause currents which will sweep particles of food down the
gullet The Vorticella is at first a free-swimming unstalked bell, but with the stalk it becomes fixed, and it
naturally settles down where there is likely to be an abundance of food. The currents set up necessarily send
antherozoids down the gullet, but some come in contact with the apex of the trichogyne, and are retained there.
The forked hair, too, will serve to break the force of the current, and form a sort of eddy, so that the antherozoids
may the more readily settle down where wanted. The antherozoid thus blends with the trichogyne, and its sub-
stance passes down the canal of the trichogyne, till it reaches the central cell, and thus fertilisation is effected.
The forked hair and trichogyne both disappear after fertilisation, having served their purpose.
Life History. — The Red Sea-weeds multiply by a simple non-sexual process, or are reproduced sexually in a somewhat complicated
manner.
The contents of certain cells break up into four portions, which escape by rupturing the cell-wall, and germinating
reproduce the parent plant These are the Tetragonidia produced non-sexually.
In some red sea-weeds the male and female organs are on different parts of the same plant, but in Polysiphonia they
are on different plants. The Male plant produces Antheridia, which begin as a single-celled branch, then become a row of
cells, and finally a cone-like mass of cells. The forked hair arises from the stalk-cell, and the other cells produce the
rounded Antherozoids. The Female plant produces Oogonia, but as they become spore-fruits after fertilisation, they are called
Carpogonia. These arise, like the Antheridia, from a single cell, which eventually becomes a basal portion or Foot, con-
sisting of a ring of four cells, and one in the centre ; a middle or Fertile portion, consisting of a large central cell, sur-
rounded by a number of cells; and a top portion, consisting of a long cell or Trichogyne, with a forked hair. An
Antherozoid reaching the apex of the trichogyne, in the way already described, is retained there, and strange to say, the
fertilising effect is produced at some distance in the central cell and surrounding cells of the Carpogonium. The surrounding
cells grow and divide till they form a fruit-like cover, while the central cell forms a number of close-set branches, at the ends
of which the Carpospores are developed. There is thus a Spore-fruit formed, which discharges its so-called Carpospores or
Endogonidia by a hole at the top; these on germination give rise to young plants.
CRYPTOGAMS
CHARA
PLATE XIX.
Fig.l Chora,
Fig. 3 Fertile leaf (* 10)
Fig. 2 Growing point of Stem
Bud
Ccayogordum\
Fig. 4 Fortiori of leaf with male &
female organs ( * 50)
Bra/Ueo,
Carpogoniiarh.
Containing Oosphent
Larat lateral
AntheridiuTTh
Antheridturn.[
Sterile leaflets
Fig. 5 Fortiori ofAninenMari detached
Fig. 6 Antherozoiol liberated.
Fig. 9 ] Fro-embryo
complete-
Fig. 7 Spore (* SO)
PrimarylRoot
2j> Antherozoids
'ospherev
3/ FertUtzed Germ-cell or Oospore,
Engraved, Printed and PabHsned "by"W k AX Johnston, Edinburgh, k London.
PLATE XIX.-STONEWORT (Chara).
{Development after Pringtheim).
Chara may be found growing in ponds and streams, varying in height from a few inches to several feet. It is entirely submerged
and the stem is often encrusted with calcareous matter derived from the water, which makes it exceedingly brittle. In bog-pools,
however, where the water is soft they may be found free from this, and so more useful for purposes of study.
This plant differs from those hitherto considered in possessing an Axis and Appendages. The Axis grows in the direction of its
length and is furnished with an apical cell, by the division of which growth is continued. Certain cells of the stem have also different
functions assigned to them. The Lateral Appendages arise from one kind of cell while another kind is much longer and form the main
part of the axis.
Fig. 1. Portion of Chara in Fruit.
It is composed of a long thread-like stem, giving off at intervals appendages arranged in whorls, and ending in
a terminal bud. The place where each whorl of appendages comes off is called a Node, and the space between
two nodes is called an Internode. An internode and node with its appendages forms a Segment, and the whole axis
is thus a repetition of similar segments. Branches or secondary axes repeating the structure of the primary axis,
arise from the angle between the leaves and the stem.
Fig. 2. Harden specimens in a weak solution of chromic acid, which also dissolves any limy incrustation, then get as small a
portion as possible of the terminal bud and press it out, without destroying it, in glycerine.
The apical cell or growing point is a nucleated hemispherical celL It is hemispherical, for its free rounded
surface is not influenced by pressure, while the under surface is flat, being pressed against its neighbour. Below the
second cell, which is flat on both surfaces, comes three cells formed from a single cell by vertical divisions. Next
is an undivided cell, followed by a divided cell.
Fig. 3. Fertile leaf detached.
Antheridia or Male Organs, globular.
Carpogonia or Female Organs, more elongated.
Fig. 4. Portion of same enlarged.
The Antheridia and Carpogonia arise from a node, and the leaflets or bracteoles protect them.
Fig. 5. Tease out a ripe Antheridium and examine portions under highest power of microscope.
The essential parts are the filaments divided into numerous cells, each containing an Antherozoid.
Pig. 6. The liberated antherozoid is seen to have two long cilia at the tapering end and granular contents at the blunt end.
Figs. 7, 8, and 9. The spores on germination gives rise to a Primary Rootlet and a Pro-embryo, one of the cells of which
buds forth and produces a Chara.
Life History of Chara. — Chara produces Antheridia with Antherozoids and Carpogonia with their central cells. The antherozoids
fertilise the central cell of the Carpogonium thus converting it into an Oospore. This germinates and produces a Pro-
embryo, from a bud of which Chara is developed.
*n.\i }H
CRYPTOGAMS
LIVERWORTS
PLATE XX.
Fig.l General appearance, ofZunidaria
a. Female Plant
L U N U L A R I A
Fig. 4 Exmsverse section ofThallas
Fig. 2 Upper surface ofThnlhus crcrrpr^^ ap***
b. upper surface. c. under surface
y
Respiratory Pore in centre
of each, tract.
Irregular shaped tracts
oven-tying Air spares
Fig. 3 Respiratory Fore
enlarged.
^^t Operuno ^^m Ouara
Cells containing Chlorophyll
Colourless cells
Viand
Fig. 6 General appearance ofMarchan&a
y Ahixoids
\ NT! A
Fig. 5 G&Turboe at different stages of development in Receptacle
a. Malt Plant
b. Female. Plant
r odiAed branch
bearing Jntheridia
ThaHus
odi&ed branch
bearing Archeaonia
Epidermis
Colourless cells
Fig. 8 AnJhjeridiicnz ScAntherozoids
highly magnified, very highly magnified
Fig. 7 Fortwn of Vertical section of Cap
Respiratory Pore in section.
rows of
chlorophyR-conCaintng cells
Air space.
Fig. 11 Spores ScFlaters
0* •
Fig. 9 Fipe Archegordunz
Fig. 10 Spore FrattS on wider surface, of s&lhxe disc ft 6)
Spore Fruits
LIFE H ISTO R r 0IA6RAM
Karchantia
Stalk
Fndo-gonidia,
Spore Fruit
2 z' Anthertdia.
.REPRODUCTION/ and .
Archegoma,
''ertttLxed verm cell
or Oospore
Perianth
Neck.
Opening of Canal
Engraved, Printed and Pciblisned "by W. & AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
PLATE XX— MOONWORT (Lunularia vulgaris) and VARIABLE LIVERWORT (Marchantia polymorpha).
Lunularia.
Lunularia, so named from its crescent-shaped receptacles, is found on neglected flower-pots left in a dam]) and shady place, and such
like. It only produces buds in this country and is very convenient for seeing the Gemmae at different stages, while the Marchantia
may serve for tracing the sexual process. It forms a small, bright-green bifurcating Thallus.
Fig. la. Female plant with fertile branch, forming a cross-shaped apex bearing Archegonia
Fig. lb and c. The gemmae-bearing plant, with a forked growing apex, and withering away behind. The upper surface has
gemmae-cups and the under surface a tangled line of root-hairs.
Fig. 2. Upper surface of Thallus under simple microscope shows irregularly shaped tracts with Respiratory-pore in centre of
each.
Fig. 3. Peel off a very thin slice of epidermis and examine under high power.
Opening of Respiratory-pore (seen in section, in Fig. 7).
Fig. 4. Embed small portion of Thallus in paraffin and make tranverse section.
Upper Epidermis of close-fitting cells.
Respiratory-cavity containing green cell".
Colourless cells.
Lower Epidermis, giving rise to Root-hairs, each composed of a single cell and with walls, strengthened by
incomplete spiral thickenings.
Fig. 5. Embed a young Receptacle in paraffin and make transverse section.
The Gemmae are seen at all stages of development, from little pear-shaped bodies (1) till they reach maturity (8),
ready to be detached and shed.
Marchantia.
Marchantia is very common in moist or damp places, spreading over damp rocks or soil, or on the mould of flower-pots. It is a
leathery flat expansion and grows by repeated bifurcation at one end, so that it gradually forms a fan-shaped mass. The upper surface
is dark-green, while the under surface, in contact with the soil or rock, is pale in colour. There are not only root-hairs on the under
surface to fasten it, but a double row of membranous appendages which are apparently comparable to leaves.
Fig. 6a. Male plant with fertile branch spread out at the top in umbrella fashion. The upper surface of this fertile branch
is studded with little openings which are the mouths of sacs containing Antheridia
Fig. 6b. Female plant with fertile branch expanded at the top into a star-like disc bearing Archegonia on its under surface.
The cup-shaped receptacle with toothed margin contains gemmae.
Fig. 7. Embed piece of cup in paraffin and make section — or a piece of the Thallus may be used.
On the inner surface of cup (lower surface in drawing) the cells are relatively large and colourless, and the
outer surface has its epidermal cells close together. Beneath the epidermis there are Respiratory cavities containing
branched rows of chlorophyll-containing cells, to which air has admission through the little openings seen on the
surface of the Thallus (Fig. 2) called Respiratory-pores.
The object of this arrangement is only to admit the air where most wanted. The general arrangement of the
tissues is impermeable to air, and the plant does not readily dry up, from its tough and leathery texture ; but by
means of these little lung-like chambers the air plays freely among the spread-out green cells and enables them
to decompose carbonic acid in the presence of sunlight.
Fig. 8. Embed portion of male plant containing Antheridia and make sections. Examine first under low power, then add a
drop of spirit, afterwards glycerine, and examine under high power.
Antheridium with stalk, an outer wall, and inner mass of cells developing antherozoids.
The ripe antheridium bursts irregularly on one side to discharge its contents. The cell-walls swell up with
water and burst, then the gelatinous contents poured out are gradually dissolved by the water, and the freed anthero-
zoids may be seen moving about with two cilia.
Fig. 9. Ripe Archegonium, showing the margins of the lobes of the disc growing down to form a sort of investment or
perianth.
Fig, 10. Sporogonia or Spore-fruits on under surface of disc, consisting of rounded bodies.
The interior mass of cellular tissue is converted into alternating rows of spores and spiral filaments. As water
is absorbed the spore-capsule bursts and, under the same influence, the spiral filaments, coiled up like a spring,
spread out and scatter the accompanying spores with considerable force.
Fig. 11. Spores and Elaters.
The Elaters are doubly coiled filaments enclosed by a wall.
Life History of Marchantia. — Marchantia multiplies by asexual buds or Gemmae, which are little green bodies enclosed in cup-
shaped receptacles, and on becoming detached, may develop into new individuals.
Marchantia also reproduces itself sexually. The male organs (or Antheridia) and the female organs (or Archegonia) are
borne by different individuals. The Antherozoids fertilise the central cell of the Archegonium, converting it into an Oospore
which swells up and grows into a Sporogonium full of spores. The spore germinates, producing the green, flat expansion,
as at the beginning.
CRYPTOGAMS
MOSS
PLATE XXL
Fig.lMalc Plant of EmrMoss
iFerianth leaves
surrounding ty 2 Fwidk PloM of
Fiuicuvl tygromtfrlooL
Older
Fig. 3 Apex of Male Plant, ofFunaria,
Paraphyses
'<v. 1 Ripe Spore- capsule.
Lid Cast off
Antherxdia
Young
Spore-capsule
without The cap
Fig. 5 Archegonmm
Mouth,
Fig. 4 Anther ox oul of
" Parr moss (*1000)
Flattened, apex
Fig. 8 Peristome ofFunarin seen under low power
vnEoot hairs
\Central cell
Fig. 9 Longitudinal Sc Transverse section,
of Capsule of Fimaria,
Fig. 6 Sporocarp borne, on long stalk
Fig. 10 Pipe Spore in optical section
• Outer wall
\Inner -wall
OibglobuLes
Od- globules-large tsmall
Fig. 12 Portion of Protonmuz
Fig.U Germuwtting Spore
Chlorophyll grains
Moot hair''
Maw branch,
giving off side brandies
LIFE HISTORY DIAGRAM
Moss plant
/T\ •
n _^^ rAnthavba, kArchegonia,
Jrrotonema, O? p /
/ 5 3 \
JRndo-gonidia, I -~±FertihzccL GermrceU or Oospore
Sport Fruit
En.*rav>ed. Printed and Published by Wile AX Johnston. Edinlrar^]
PLATE XXL— COMMON HAIR-MOSS (Polytrichum) and FUNARIA HYGROMETRICA
Mosses are common everywhere, on wall-tops, roofs, and trees, decking the banks with a mantle of green, or carpeting the forests
with their luxuriance. Mosses, however, like other plants, have als6 their favourite haunts and their favourite seasons, but Funaria has
this advantage, that it may be found in fruit at almost any season of the year.
The Hair-Moss {Polytrichum) is common on waste-ground and heaths where it forms tufted masses. The male and female organs
are borne by distinct plants, and the hairy cap of the moss-fruit may be readily recognised. The stem may be several inches in height.
Funaria occurs on walls, roofs, and waste-places pretty common. The leafy plant is small, but the stalk bearing the pear-shaped
capsule is an inch or two in length. This stalk has the peculiarity of contracting to. a spiral on drying after being moistened.
Fig 1 . 1. Male Plant of Polytrichum, with numerous brown root-hairs and slender stem.
The apex of the stem forms a leafy expansion bearing the male organs.
Fig. 2. Female plant of Funaria.
In the young condition the Capsule is sessile, but it is borne on a lopg stalk later.
The Leafy plant has a very short stem, with bright green leaves overlapping each other.
Fig. 3. The flattened apex is bounded by leaves, and bears stalked bodies of considerable size intermixed with barren filaments.
The stalked bodies are the male organs or Antheridia, consisting of a wall formed of a single layer of cells,
and the interior cells developing Antherozoids.
Tease out portions of the apex, and examine under high power for Antheridia with Antherozoids, and Arche-
gonia.
Fig. 4. Antherozoid, a coiled body with two cilia.
Stain with iodine to kill them and make cilia visible.
Fig. 5. Archegonium, a flask-shaped body with long neck and a lower swollen portion containing the central cell.
Fig. 6. Sporocarp of Polytrichum.
The unripe Capsule is still green and covered by its brown hairy cap.
The lid beneath the cap is peaked.
The ripe Capsule is of a brownish-yellow and the cap yellowish.
Fig. 7. Ripe Spore-capsule of Polytrichum (June).
The lid is cast off and the spores escape.
The mouth of the capsule is surrounded by sixty-four teeth forming the Peristome.
The Epiphragm is the expanded end of the Columella.
Fig. 8. Peristome of Funaria consisting of sixteen teeth converging to a centre.
Fig. 9. Embed Capsules of Funaria in paraffin, and make longitudinal and transverse sections.
Outer wall or peripheral layer of cells.
Columella or central cylinder of colourless cells.
Spore-sac surrounding columella.
Air-cavity with strings of green cells permeating through it.
Fig. 10. Ripe spore consisting of inner and outer wall, protoplasm and oil-globules.
Fig. 11. Sow spores on blotting-paper kept moist under a glass shade.
Fig. 12. The germinating spore gives rise to a thread-like branching body — the Protonema, and a bud forms which grows up
into the leafy Moss.
Life History of a Moss. — The leafy Moss-plant forms at its apex either Antheridia producing Antherozoids or Archegonia with
their Central-cells. The antherozoids fertilise the central cell, converting it into an Oospore. This oospore divides and
produces directly the Sporogonium with its contained Spores. The top of the ripe capsule detaches itself, and the spores
come out : and on a suitable situation begin to germinate. The thick outer coat is ruptured, and the inner coat protrudes
as a filament which grows, divides and branches, till a mass of branched filaments is formed called the Protonema. The
Protonema gives rise to a bud by the bulging out of a side branch, and this produces the leafy Moss as at the beginning.
CRYPTOGAMS
MALE SHIELD FERN
PLATE XXII.
Tig. 3 TinJUL - upper surface.
Ftg. 2 JjEOf- under .s
Fig. 4 Fertile PulMlk- under surface ("JO
Kn«rsvpd Printed and Published by W. 8c AJ£. Johnston, Edinburgh
PLATE XXII— MALE SHIELD FERN (Aspidium filix-mas).
Ferns have always attracted notice from their graceful outlines and their varied forms, still it, is only comparatively recently that the
complete course of their life history has been made out The frond of the Fern is the most conspicuous, the underground portion
being generally overlooked Having so much leaf about them, they generally inhabit moist and shady situations. Their prevailing
colour is green, but towards the autumn a brown hue appears on the under surface of the frond, in streaks or patches, and this is due
to the formation of spore-cases containing the spores.
The Male Shield Fern is so named by way of contrast to an allied form— the Lady Fern, with its graceful habit, its elegant form,
and its delicate hue. It bears its fronds in tufts, arranged in shuttle-cock fashion, and rising to a height of two or three feet. The
young fronds are rolled up like a shepherd's crook, and gradually unfold themselves. The veining of the leaflets is distinctly seen, and
that constant forking of the veins so characteristic of Ferns. The spore-cases are arranged in patches, each patch being indicated by
its kidney-shaped cover. The amount of spores produced is enormous, and readily accounts for its extensive distribution. Professor
Dodel-Port has reckoned the number of spores scattered by a single fern, in a single summer, to be no less than one thousand millions.
Fig. 1. Underground Stem ascends obliquely, and is completely covered with the stumps of leaves, from the base of which the
numerous roots arise.
Fig. 2. Fertile leaf or frond bearing Sporangia on under surface.
The leaf is bi-pinnate; the pinna? are long, narrow, tapering, and the pinnules are obtuse.
On the under surface of the leaf, usually at the forking of two veins, kidney-shaped structures appear called
Indusia. Each Indusium covers a cluster of stalked capsules, such a cluster being called a Sorus, and each stalked
capsule a Sporangium.-
Fig. 3. Pinna or leaflet on upper surface.
The pinnules towards the top run into each other
The forked Venation is evident
Fig. 4. Pinnule from base of Pinna.
The Indusium may be found dosed over the cluster of Sporangia, or raised on one side to allow the ripe spores
to escape, or in some cases burst.
Fig. 5. Section of Pinnule through Ripe Sorus in Fig. 4.
Indusium arising from central swelling of vascular bundle, arching completely over clusters of Sporangia, and
consisting of a single layer of nucleated cells in its expanded portions.
Sporangia in different stages of development, opened and unopened, full and empty of Spores. Some have
longer or shorter stalks, with a stalked gland which is peculiar to the species, and there are several hair-like unde-
veloped Sporangia known as Paraphyses.
Fig. 6. The Sporangia may be rubbed off on a slide and examined in water. They can afterwards be burst by pressure on the
cover-glass.
The Sporangium is an oval body borne by a short stalk. There is a ring of thick projecting cells extending
from the cleft overhead, and backwards to the top of the stalk. The cells forming the slightly convex wall on
either side are thin and easily ruptured.
Fig. 7. Spores.
The Spore has a thick, outer brown coat or Exosporium with irregular markings, and a thin, inner delicate coat or
Endosporium.
CRYPTOGAMS
MALE SHIELD FERN— cont c
PLATE XXII I.
Fig. 1. Dwdopmatixf Spore, Fl $ Z Genrmwiimuaf 'Spore,
Fig. lArckegoJuimv iibSedwnal'Fl&vauoTb SoTlmv
fa.' Sectional JILevatiorv
mm:
^sr
Moot
Fig. 3. FrothjodliuMrimcier surfox&
^Arxhegordoj
^
Fig. 4. Awdwridiwru
2fother-oells
ofjinihtrozoids
Fig. 5. Mother- cell wttiv
AnxhroxDiFL
Central Cell
FrothaUharv-.
(bUFlan,
Canal Cells
, ' irvilknvs
Fig. 6.Anjtherozoid
LIFE HISTORY DIAGRAM
Ferrv
Fertilised, Gtrnv cell
Atffaerulub&s
Archegonia/
■Fndo-c/onidia.
Tratkalhis
Engraved. Printed and Published by W Sc AX Johnston, Edinburgh
PLATE XXIII.— MALE SHIELD FERN— <»«//«//«/.
Fig. 1. Development of Spores.
In each Sporangium a single central cell gives rise to sixteen mother-cells by successive division into 2, 4, 8,
and 16.
Each mother-cell divides into four Spores, as shown. The cell-wall of each spore is differentiated into an
inner and outer coat, as seen in Fig. 2, and chlorophyll is developed in the contents.
Fig. 2. Spore germinating.
With moisture the Spore swells, and the outer, firm Exosporium ruptures, while the inner, delicate Endosporium
protrudes. As this grows a transverse septum is formed, and about the same time the lower cell gives forth the first
rootlet
Fig. 3. Prothallium.
The germinating Spore first produces a row of cells, then, by oblique division, a surface of cells, and finally the
flat expansion of the Prothallium.
Male and female reproductive organs next arise on the under surface of the Prothallus.
Antheridia, or male organs, arise among the bases of the root-hairs, and Archegonia, or female organs, near to the
notch.
Fig. 4. Antheridium.
The Antheridia are rounded projections, the contents of which break up into mother-cells, in each of which an
Antherozoid is developed.
Fig. 5. The coiled-up Antherozoid is seen in the mother-cell.
Fig. 6. Antherozoid free.
Fig. 7. Archegonium.
The central or germ cell is the point which the Antherozoids must reach in order to produce fertilizatioa For
this purpose there is a central canal open at the top, and bounded by four longitudinal rows of cells. •
Life History Diagram. — The conspicuous Fern (1) developes Spores or Gonidia (2) on its under surface ; and one of these germinating
produces a Prothallium (3), afterVards producing male and female organs — Antheridia and Archegonia (4) — on its under surface ;
the central cell of the Archegonium becomes fertilized by the access of Antherozoids, and the Fertilized Germ-cell (5) developes
into the Fern(i).
CLASSIFICATION.
Sub-kingdom. — Vascular Cryptogams.
True Roots.
Fibro-vascular bundles.
Prothallus bearing reproductive organs comparatively inconspicuous.
Class. — Filicinae.
Stem usually unbranched.
Leaves large and compound.
Sporangia in clusters, and each sporangium developed from a single epidermal cell.
Spores of one or two kinds.
Order. — Filices.
Leaves without stipules.
Spores of one kind.
Prothallus independent and monoecious.
Genus. — Aspidium.
CRYPTOGAMS
HORSE TAIL AND PILLWOKT
PLATE XXIV.
E Q U I S E T U M
Figl Fertile Sinn ofF. arvense Fig. Zlertik Stem, ofRrnjaxmami
Fig. 3 Barren Stem ofJS maocwwrri
Fig. 6 Longitudinal section of Sporangia
Shield
Lowest whorl
of Brandies
winged- thickenings
Spiral thickenings
Fibre vascular bundle from Axis
Leaf Sheath
Fig. ITortbns of Sporangium wall undei* high power
cells with spiral thukeriings cell with ringed, thickening*
Fig.8 Spores under hw power \
Fig. 4 LoJigitiuLuial & Transversa
section/ of Spik& off. arvense/ .
Fig. 5 Fertile Leafs tightly enlarged
Stalked, discs
bearing Sporangia
Fig. 9 Male frothnllus (* 200 )
AraheriMa---:::'
Fig.lO Aranerozoids
Sporangia, opening
on under surface-
Spore
i I
Fig.RYoung Plant ("10)
Fig.FA?ich^o7unmajL^Fernlizaiion (*270)
P I L U L A R I A
Fig.14 Transverse section of Fruit
First Boot
Macro -spomngiurrL
Bore
Fruit
%eaf sheaths
Lobe of
■ProthaSus
LIFE HISTORY D/AGRAM
Squisetion.
TenlizadGerm
Antheridia. <t
Archegonia.
hdo-gonidia.
ProtkaSus
Male LFemak.
Fig.15 Microspores
irnderbw power
Fig. 16 Macro spore ("800)
-"II,
Inner Coat
Hyaline Coat
Gelatinous Coat
with prismatic structure I
9 Outer Coat
I with longitudinal and
transverse striatiorts ■ A
' a. v i t y
Engraved, Printed and Pabnsh.ed'by'W&AX Johnston, Edanbnrgh.
PLATE XXIV.— COMMON HORSE-TAIL (Equisetum arvense), GREAT HORSE-TAIL (E. maximum)
and PILLWORT (Pilularia globulifera).
Horse-tails belong to the smallest natural order among Vascular Cryptogams, there being but a single living genus and representative
Equisetum. They all inhabit marshy and damp places.
Gigantic forms existed during the Carboniferous period, such as the Calamites.
The Vegetative structures which these plants produce are extremely dissimilar — according as they are fertile or barren. The fertile
shoots are formed in the spring, bear spores, have no chlorophyll, and usually do not branch. The barren shoots, on the other hand,
which are relatively large, are formed later in the year, have abundance of chlorophyll, and branch freely, the numerous whorls of
branches giving that peculiar appearance suggestive of a horse's tail The business of the barren shoot is to nourish the plant ; so
during summer it manufactures and stores up nutriment in the underground stem, to enable it to send up a fertile shoot early next year.
The Underground Stem or Rhizome develops Roots at each of the nodes, and produces Buds which give rise to upright shoots.
These buds are sometimes curiously shaped and swollen, being distended, particularly with starch, for the rapid early growth of the
young shoot
mechanical
and this ro_ e
silica may easily be shown by fusing a piece of the stem in the hottest part of the gas flame, when little beads of glass are produced.
The Branches are slender green filaments, given off at the nodes, and arranged in whorls. They repeat the structure of the stem
in being jointed and possessing leaf-sheaths. They have this peculiarity, that although formed in the axils of leaves just like ordinary
buds, yet instead of growing up between the leaf and the stem they burst through the base of the leaf-sheath.
The Leaves are the funnel-shaped sheaths investing the stem, inconspicuous in the barren shoot, more prominent and swollen in the
fertile one. They are produced into longer or shorter teeth ; the teeth of successive whorls not being placed above one another, but
er The Modified Leaves of the fertile shoot form the shield-like structures of the spike. These little shield-like leaves are homologous
with the leaf-sheaths, each appearing as a ring of tissue round the axis; the margins, in the one case, growing out into teeth or points,
in the other, expanding into plates or shields.
Figs 1 and 2. The Fertile shoot is clothed at regular intervals with leaf-sheaths, and at the apex is expanded into a club-shaped
head covered with little stalked discs, arranged in whorls. Immediately beneath the spike is a wavy ring, representing
a rudimentary leaf-sheath, just like bracts or modified leaves in the neighbourhood of a flower.
Fig. 3. The Barren shoot is seen to have leaf-sheaths closely embracing the stem, and whorls of branches bursting through their base.
Fiff 4. Make a longitudinal and transverse section of the Spike.
The modified fertile leaves of the spike are placed at right angles to it and arranged in whorls, each whorl
supposed to correspond to a leaf-sheath, but instead of growing applied to the stem it grows at right angles to it
Successive whorls of leaves are closely pressed against each other, so that the discs assume a polygonal outline.
Fiff. 5. Fertile leaf detached and examined.
It has a short stalk bearing its shield, from the under or inner surface of which sporangia containing spores are
produced. The sporangia open towards the stalk by a longitudinal slit, and the greenish powdery spores readily escape.
Fiff 6 Embed young spike in paraffin, and cut transverse sections. Mount in glycerine, and examine under low power.
** ' g acn 5^1^ contains a fibro-vascular bundle, which passes from the axis of the spike, and in the shield branches
towards the insertion of each sporangium.
Sporangium wall formed of a single layer of cells.
Fiff. 7. Examine portion of wall under high power. .
Cells next to stalk with ring-like thickenings. These ringed cells burst longitudinally when the spores are npe.
Other cells of sporangium with spiral thickenings.
Fiff 8 Shake out some of the green spores on a slide and gently breathe upon them. ... . .
The Spores are round or somewhat egg-shaped bodies, averaging T fo to T £ T inch in diameter, with bright green
contents and spirally coiled Elaters.
Each spore is furnished with three membranes instead of two, and the outer membrane, as the spore ripens,
splits up into ribbon-like strips which are the Elaters.
These Elaters uncoil as the moisture of the breath evaporates; and, by drying and moistening in this way, a per-
petual motion can be kept up, which is so lively and jerky that it looks more like vital than purely physical action..
Fiff 9 The germinating spore produces a Prothallus, which may either bear Antheridia or Archegonia.
*' ' xhe Prothallus is irregularly lobed, and bears the Antheridia at the end of these lobes; while in the female
Prothallus, the Archegonia are developed between the lobes.
Fig. 10. The Antherozoids are not much coiled, but very stout, and have a brush of cilia at the tapering end. They are the
largest in the whole vegetable kingdom.
Fiff. 11. Early development of the Embryo. . , . , , , „
There is first division into two cells, the upper half representing the primary axis, the lower half representing
the root portion. Each half is again divided into two cells, the upper two representing stem and leaf, the lower
two forming root and foot This foot is functionally the root of the young embryo, and is temporary, while the
root proper is for the growing plant
Fig. 12. Vertical section of lobe of Prothallus, with young plant The young plant at this stage has its first root formed, and its
leaf-bearing axis developing leaf-sheaths.
Life History Diagram —The fertile branch of Equisetum produces its spike with the sporangia containing the spores. The
spores carried by their outspread elaters to a damp and shady spot, begin to germinate, producing either a Male Prothallus
with Antheridia, or a Female Prothallus with Archegonia. The Antherozoids set free, fertilise the central cell of the Arche-
gonium, thus producing an Embryo which grows up into the mature plant
CLASSIFICATION OF EQUISETUM.
Sub-kingdom. —Vascular Cryptogams.
Order. — Equisetacese.
Upright stems, hollow and jointed.
Leaves, small, forming sheaths. >
Fertile leaves, in whorls, forming a spike and bearing sporangia on inner surface.
Spores, of one kind, and furnished with Elaters.
Prothallus generally dioecious.
Common Horse-Tail, etc. — continued.
Genus. — Equisetum — the only genus.
Species. — Arvense — Ixaf-sheaths of fertile stem, loose and distant.
Maximum — Leaf-sheaths of fertile stem, large, loose, and close together.
Difference from Ferns. — In Ferns, the fertile leaves bearing the sporangia are not usually confined to any particular part, and they act
both as ordinary green leaves and as spore-carriers. In Equisetum, different stems are produced at different seasons
of the year lor these two purposes. The Barren stems are green, and their sole work is to store up nutriment
in the underground stem. The Fertile stems do nothing towards their own support, but use up the accumulated
nourishment, in order to produce the spores.
The majority of Ferns, too, produce Antheridia and Archegonia on the same prothallus; whereas in Equisetum the
two are kept separate, the male prothallus being smaller than the female.
Pilularia— Fructification.
Pillwort occurs by the margins of lakes or ponds, or in badly drained places. It has a wiry, creeping rhizome, which gives off
roots on the under surface, narrow stiff leaves on the upper surface, and terminates in a growing bud. Tittle pill-like bodies occur
towards the autumn, at the base of several of the leaves, either at or beneath the surface, and these are the Fruits. These fruits con-
tain spores of two kinds— Micro-spores or Male spores, and Macro-spores or Female spores. No male prothallus is formed, and only a
small female prothallus with a single Archegonium.
Fig". 13. Rhizome, slender and creeping, ending in a terminal bud.
Roots, from under surface. /
Leaves, in two rows, youngest always nearest the growing point.
Fruits, at the base of the leaves.
Fig. 14. Embed Fruit in paraffin and make sections.
Fruit consisting of four segments, supposed to be modified leaves joined edge to edge, the midrib represented
by central fibro-vascular bundle in each.
Each segment with three fibro-vascular bundles, the middle one forming the core of a projecting cushion on
which the spore-cases are produced.
Sporangia borne on the inner surface of modified leaves arranged in a whorl, containing Microspores and Macro-
spores.
Fig. 15. Micr6spores examined under low power — average size about v $ v inch in diameter.
The Microspore forms no male prothallus, but its contents break up directly into Antherozoids. The tri-radiate
markings show the lines along which the spore splits to allow the escape of the Antherozoids.
Fig. 16. Macrospore examined under high power.
Contents. — Cavity filled with nutritious substances, such as starch and oil globules.
Investments. — Four coats of varying quality,, formed in succession from within outwards.
Inner coat, compact, the first formed coat.
Hyaline coat, forming papilla at apex.
Third coat, with radiating structure.
Outer gelatinous coat, with concentric and radiating structure. This outer coat swells up with water.
CRYPTOGAMS
LYCOPOD AND SELAGINELLA
PLATE XXV.
Fig.l Club Moss
Fig. 2 Ordnyny Leaf Fig. 3 Fertile Leaf -enlarged
oed
LIFE HISTORY DIAGRAM
Lycopod.
2 > Spores of one kind
Fig. 8 'Microspore.
2~prSpores of 2 kinds
1 4, 3,
AiilluTiuiii tuii! L^ ^~^~AProtnaJ7iiS rudimentary
Archtooraa Malt & Female
Engraved, Printed and Published hy W & &JL Johnston, Edinburgh
PLATE XXV.— COMMON CLUB-MOSS (Lycopodium clavatum) and Selaginella.
(Qhiefly f)-om Luenuen't " Metlicinisch-Pharmaceutische Botanil:")
Lycopodium.
Club-mosses, as the common name denotes, are moss-like plants, having slender herbaceous stems, clothed with delicate small leaves,
and found in mountainous situations or stony, wet places.
The fossil forms of the Carboniferous period, of which Lepidodendron is the most characteristic, instead of being herbaceous, were
large trees.
The prostrate creeping Stem is very leafy, and much branched. From the under surface arise the roots, and from the upper surface
the upright fertile shoots, ending generally in two fertile spikes.
The Leaves are hair-pointed, and arranged in a close spiral round the stem.
The Modified Leaves bearing the sporangia are shorter and broader than the ordinary leaves, though. sometimes they are quite the
same.
The numerous minute spores (Fig. 4) are applied to various uses. They contain a* quantity of resinous matter, and their wall is of
a greasy nature. This resinous quality renders them readily combustible, hence they are used as "vegetable sulphur" for producing an
artificial and sudden flame to represent lightning at theatres, and their greasy coat has caused them to be used for dusting over pills,
thus preventing the contained pill from touching the tongue.
Pig. 1. Creeping Stem branches dichotomously, and also the Roots.
Leaves thickly set round the stem.
Spikes usually in pairs, mounted on a stalk.
Fig. 2. Leaf one-nerved and irregularly toothed, with a long hair-point variable in length.
Pig. 3. Fertile leaf bearing Sporangium at its base on the upper surface. Sporangium kidney-shaped, splitting into two valves,
and producing only one kind of spore.
Fig. 4. Spore with netted markings fading away towards apex. »
Three converging ridges, along which exospore ruptures.
Fig. 5. Prothallus of Lycopodium, discovered by Fankhauser in the autumn of 1872.
It is an underground solid structure, without chlorophyll, pretty smooth on the under surface, but deeply
grooved on the upper. Antheridia and Archegonia are developed in the grooves.
Life History Diagram. — The discovery of the Prothallus shows that the Lycopod, in its reproductive processes, is more nearly
allied to Ferns, such as Adder's Tongue (Ophioglossum), than to Selaginella, beside which its vegetative characters seemed to
place it
The fertile leaves of the spike bear sporangia on their inner base, the spores of which are of one kind. The spore on
germination produces a prothallus, underground, solid, without chlorophyll, independent of the spore, and with Antheridia and
Archegonia. The embryo resulting from fertilization forms a foot embedded in the tissue of the prothallus, and grows up
into the young plant
CLASSIFICATION OF LYCOPODIUM.
Sub-kingdom. — Vascular Cryptogams.
Class. — Dichotomae.
Stem and Roots branching dichotomously.
Leaves small and simple.
Sporangia solitary.
Spores of one or two kinds.
Order. — Lycopodiaceae.
Leaves without a ligule.
Spores of one kind.
Prothallus large and independent.
Genus. — Lycopodium, only British genus.
Species. — Clavatum.
Spikes usually in pairs, long-stalked.
Selaginella.
Selaginella, with only one British species, the lesser Club-moss, has a special interest from the fact that it not only belongs to the
highest group of Cryptogams, but that it shows a gradual passage from the reproductive processes characteristic of Cryptogams to those
of Phanerogams. It is this phase of its character which will receive special attention now.
The Reproductive Structures are of two kinds, and, generally speaking, the Macrosporangia are only produced on the lower leaves,
and Microsporangia on the upper. In Pilularia, Sporangia of two kinds were produced, springing in tufts from the inner (or upper)
surface of four modified leaves arranged in a whorl, but here they spring singly and separately from the upper surface of leaves arranged
spirally. In the one case the leaves were all at one level, united at their edges, and enclosing the Sporangia, here the leaves are drawn
out into a spiral, and bear the Sporangia without enclosing them.
The developing Embryo (as in Fig. 14) will show the points of contact with higher plants. For the first time there appears in the
spore, along with the female prothallus, yet distinct from it, a mass of cells which supply nutriment to the young and growing embryo.
This is the Endosperm of higher plants. Further, the embryo as soon as it forms the rudiments of the stem bearing its two first leaves,
or Cotyledons, gives rise to a Suspensor, as in higher plants.
Fig. 6. Specimens may readily be obtained from hothouses, where they are grown on damp spots for their beautiful and delicate
foliage.
Leaves on creeping stem in two lateral rows and two dorsal rows. Those of the upper surface, or dorsal row,
are relatively smaller than those of the lateral row.
Upright Fertile Spike, with similar leaves arranged spirally, and bearing sporangia in their axils.
Fig. 7. Embed portion of fertile spike in paraffin and make longitudinal section.
Fibro-vascular bundle in centre of axis, united with those going to leaves.
Air-spaces surrounding fibro-vascular bundles, the interspaces composed of numerous green, branching cell-
filaments.
Outer cells colourless.
Leaf with membraneous Ligule at its base, and bearing a Macrosporangium in its axil.
Leaf on opposite side bearing Microsporangium in its axil.
Microsporangium containing numerous small spores — the Microspores.
Macrosporangium, the largest, containing four Macrospores arranged like a tetrahedron, and several aborted
mother-cells of spores.
Common Club-Moss — continued.
Fig. 8. Microspore rendered transparent to show internal division.
The contents break up into cells, one of which does not form Antherozoids, and may therefore be regarded as
a rudimentary Male Prothallus.
Fig. 9. Macrospore six weeks after escaping from sporangium, and before rupture of the exospore.
Prothallus rudimentary, within the spore, bearing Archegonia.
Endosperm, loose cellular tissue formed by free cell-formation, i.e. a grouping of masses of protoplasm around
small internal centres, and forming cell-walls about them, independent of prothallus, but supplying nourishment to it.
Figs. 10 and 11. Archegonium before and after fertilization.
The neck of the Archegonium is at first closed, but afterwards opens to give access to the Antherozoids.
The central cell after fertilization divides first into two — one half further dividing and giving rise to stem and
leaves, the other half also dividing and forming Suspensor.
Fig. 12. Embryo still within the spore.
The Suspensor is a temporary structure, and there are no indications of the root so long as it lasts, but when
it withers away the end of the embryo in connection with it forms the root
The Foot is always embedded in the Endosperm, serving as a means of connection between the embryo and its
early food-supplies.
Life History Diagram. — The upright fertile shoot bears the sporangia in the axils of its leaves — either Micro- or Macro- sporangia.
The Microspore divides internally into antheridial cells, all but one barren basal cell, which represents a Male Prothallus.
The Macrospore forms an internal Prothallus bearing Archegonia, and the rest of the spore is filled with Endosperm for food-
supplies. The Archegonia are exposed by the rupturing of the wall of the spore, and the Antherozoids liberated from the
Microspore fertilize the central cell. The Embryo thus formed is at first provided with a Suspensor, and grows right down
into the Endosperm living at its expense ; but by and by the Suspensor withers, the root appears, the growing point begins to
turn round, and the line of growth becomes horizontal, as in Fig. 12. Finally, the stem and root structures assume their
upright and downright positions, and the young plant emerges from the spore near the point where its development began.
CLASSIFICATION OF SELAGINELLA.
Sub-kingdom. — Vascular Cryptogams.
Class. — Dichotomae.
Order. — Ligulatae.
Leaves ligulate.
Spores of two kinds — Microspores and Macrospores.
Family. — Selaginelleae.
Stem long and leaves short.
Prothallus small, male and female, confined to the spore.
Genus. — Selaginella — the only genus.
Advance in Organization. — There are two distinct kinds of Sporangia — the Microsporangia, producing Microspores and the Macro-
sporangia, producing Macrospores.
The Microspore produces the smallest possible Male Prothallus in the interior of the spore, and not outside, as usual.
The Macrospore also developes an internal Female Prothallus, only protruding slightly when the exospore ruptures.
Endosperm is present, as in the seed of higher plants.
Embryo provided with Suspensor and two Cotyledons, as in higher plants.
CRYPTOGAMS
MULTIPLICATION AND REPRODUCTION
PLATE XXV L
M U C R
Endo-goniditi
U L D T H R I X
CEDDGDNIUM
lOogoruaia.
Zoo-gomdia.
Jfcdogomdui 5
Promycelium. 4
2. Male. Element stationary I ^.
Femak. ■■ J Zoogonidia 4
3 Zygospore
C H A R A
G&nmce.
Pro-embryo 4
.2 Amheroxoids
2' Oo sphere
Oospore.
Protarvema 6
Endogonidia. 5
tlwllits
2 JLnthtroxoids
2' Oosphert
3 Oospore.
PINE
K>wy Pollen- grains
"Mcrogoniduim. 5«
Embryo sac "Ifaervgonidmm 5
TroT .4
Suspensor 4
2 J&& Element-motile \ Zoogonidia. 4
2'JWfe ■ - }affite
CEdogonium.
2 Anther oxo ids
Oosphert
Zygospore
3
Oospore
A R C H A N Tl A
iiOTUIUZ &C
Endogonidia 5
Spore Fruit. 4
2 Antheroxoids
' Oosphert.
3 Oospore.
Protonema 6
Endogonidia. 5
2 Antheroxoids
2 Oosphert
3 Oospore.
E q U I S ET u
Buds
SELAGINELLA
Gemnvz.
Protonema. 6
Endogonidia- 5
Prothadus-male
ProthalhiS .female
2 Antheroxoids
Oosphert
3 Oospore
Microgonidia, 5
MacrogonictUz
SelagineUa 4
Suspensor 4
ProthalhiS- malt (Internal j
ProthalhiS- female, f do I
2 Antheroxoids
Oosphert
3 Oospore
FLOWERING PLANT
Anglosperm,
Buds, Cuttings kc
■llus-Malc-devdopedlbllen-grain,
"' it feftfaU. -Endosperm.
2 Nuclei of Mien-tube Yourg Pollen-grain 5
Z ■ Oo sphere or Germ all j^ sa£
3 Oosphere orPertdized. Germ cell
ElowtnngPknt 4
Suspensor 4
Pollen grain, of Gymnosperm,
many celled
•developedPoSen..gndn,
ithaBuslbnale. -Corutnts
of Embryo sac
■ZXudti oflbOetbtube
Oosphert
3 Oospore.
PoSen -grain of Jngiosperm,
(a, j two Celled (bj forming Polkn-tuhe
Nucleus
.KngravBtl. Priut(>a. emfl hibiislifd by W k AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
PLATE XXVL— SEXUAL PROCESS TRACED FROM MOULD TO FLOWERING PLANT.
In dealing with the life histories of organisms, it has already been shown that the simplest form of the sexual process obtains in
Mucor. A bud from one hypha grows out to meet a bud from another hypha, and some mysterious attraction brings them together.
The ends of the two blend and become parted off to form a single body, which is thus the result of a process of Conjugation. In
Ulothrix, likewise, the sexual process is, if possible, simpler. The contents of a cell, instead of growing out, breaks up into small
particles, which round themselves off and acquire two cilia, by means of which they move about. When free in the water two moving
particles from different cells meet and blend to form one body, as in Mucor.
These two forms may be taken as starting-points for tracing the sexual process in plants ; the one representing the condition where
the conjugating elements are passive and the plant is without chlorophyll, the other where the conjugating elements are active and the
plant possesses chlorophyll.
It will not be necessary to go over each life history in detail, for that has been done to a certain extent already, but simply to point
out the changes taking place, both in the sexual elements themselves and in their mode of blending, in passing from the lowest to the
highest term of the series. It will be convenient to distinguish two principal stages in the life history of each plant — a stage with
sexual organs called the Sexual Generation, and a stage with no sexual organs called the Non-sexual Generation. The Sexual Generation
opens the chapter, and a return to that ends it On glancing over the Diagrams it will be seen that the Sexual Generation is gradually
suppressed, until in the Flowering Plant it is microscopic in its dimensions, and reduced to a few cells, while the Non-sexual Generation
grows in importance, becoming the stately tree or the conspicuous flowering plant.
Note. — In this comparative view the term Spore is used in a different sense from that in the body of the work. In the lower
forms it is a cell resulting from a sexual process, viz. Zygospore or Oospore, and it is restricted to that throughout the series. Other
cells which multiply the plant are Gonidia, although from Liverwort onwards they are usually called Spores.
Mucor. — The Sexual Generation is the conspicuous mould, producing the similar and stationary male and female elements, which
blend to form a Zygospore.
The Non-sexual Generation is the inconspicuous Pro-mycelium, consisting of a single hypha, which produces Endo-gonidia, from the
germination of which Mucor is reproduced.
Ulothrix. — The Sexual Generation is the filamentous Alga, producing similar and motile male and female elements, which blend
to form a Zygospore.
The Non-sexual Generation is the Zoogonidia, derived directly from the internal division of the Zygospore, and reproducing the
filament
Oedogonium. — The Sexual Generation is the filamentous Alga, producing no longer sexual elements which are alike or nearly so,
but now clearly distinguishable — Antherozoids and Oospheres — the Oosphere becoming converted into an Oospore by the impregnation
of the Antherozoids.
The Non-sexual Generation is similar to that of Ulothrix.
Chara. — The Sexual Generation is the plant with whorled appendages, producing Antherozoids and Oospheres, from which result
Oospores.
The Non-sexual Generation is the Pro-embryo, which gives rise to a bud producing the plant
Marchantia. — The Sexual Generation is the conspicuous green expansion, producing Antherozoids on the male plant, and Oospheres
on the female plant The Oosphere, or central cell of the Archegonium, is impregnated by Antherozoids, and converted into an
Oospore.
The Non-sexual Generation is the Spore-fruit, producing Endo-gonidia, from the germination of which Marchantia is produced.
Moss. — Similar to Marchantia, only in the Non-sexual Generation the germinating Endogonidium does not directly produce the
Moss, but a Protonema is formed, from which a lateral bud arises and grows into the plant.
Fern. — The Sexual Generation is the Prothallus, a minute, green, heart-shaped expansion, corresponding to the leafy Moss. This
produces Antherozoids and Oospheres, which latterly become Oospores.
The Non-sexual Generation is the Fern, corresponding to the Spore-fruit of the Moss. This developes Endo-gonidia, each of which
produces on germination a Protonema. The Protonema is a row of green cells, often branched like that of the Moss, and afterwards
developing into the Prothallus.
Eqtjisetum. — The Sexual Generation is the Prothallus, male and female distinct
The Non-sexual Generation is the Equisetum, the fertile shoots of which repeat the history of the Fern.
Selaginella. — The Sexual Generation is the Prothallus, male and female distinct and internal.
The Non-sexual Generation is the Selaginella, which has in its embryonic condition a special structure called the Suspensor.
Pi NE , — The Sexual Generation is represented by the Male Prothallus, or cells forming the full-grown Pollen-grain, and the Female
Prothallus, or Endosperm.
The Male Prothallus is exceedingly simplified. There is only one or a few cells to represent the vegetative part, and a single
large cell to represent the antheridial part, or the part which formerly produced Antherozoids. The production of Antherozoids was
suitable for plants living in moist situations; but as Conifers live in dry situations, Antherozoids would fail of their purpose, and the
nuclei do not develope cilia for locomotion. So the representative of the antheridial cell puts forth a pollen-tube, along which the
nuclei are conveyed to their destination, viz. the germ-cell.
The Female Prothallus is represented by the Endosperm, in which the germ-cells are developed.
The Non-sexual Generation is the tree quite comparable with Selaginella, the Embryo-sac corresponding to the Macrogonidium, and
the young Pollen-grain to the Microgonidium.
Flowering Plant. — The Sexual Generation is the Male Prothallus, or cells forming the mature Pollen-grain, and the Female
Prothallus, or contents of Embryo-sac.
The Non-sexual Generation is the conspicuous Flowering Plant, producing Pollen-grains and Embryo-sac. The modified leaves of
the Flower — Stamens and Carpels — which produce Pollen-grains and Embryo-sacs are usually called Sexual Organs; but they are really
equivalent to the fertile leaves of Selaginella, the Pollen-grains being Micro-gonidia in Pollen-sacs, and the Embryo-sacs being Macro-
gonidia in Ovules. Cells are afterwards developed in the interior of Pollen-grain and Embryo-sac, which represent the Sexual
Generation.
Multiplication takes place in each case by a smaller or larger portion of the plant detaching itself and growing to the size and
form of the parent The directness and simplicity of this process are evident in the highest as well as in the lowest forms.
Fig. 1. Pollen-grain of Larch consisting of several cells.
Fig. 2. Pollen-grain of Monotropa (Dicotyledon).
(a.) Young Pollen-grain consisting of two nucleated cells.
{b.) Pollen-tube formed containing the two nuclei.
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS~FOR COMPARATIVE STUDY.
PLATE.
Aethalium septicum ("Flowers of tan") -' V.
Agaricus campestris (Common Mushroom) - XIX.
Antheridium of Aspidium • XXIII.
Chara XIX.
Equisetum - XXIV.
Fucus ----- XIII.
Funaria ... - XXI.
Marchantia - - - - XX.
Penicillium - XIV.
Peziza XIV.
Polysiphonia - - - XVIII.
Vaucheria - - - - XI.
Volvox globator - - - IX.
Antherozoid of Aspidium - - - XXIII.
Chara XIX.
Equisetum - - - - XXIV.
Fucus - - - - - XIII.
Marchantia - XX.
Oedogonium - - - XI.
Polysiphonia ... XVIII.
Polytrichum - XXI.
Selaginella - XXV.
Vaucheria - - - - XI.
Volvox globator - - - IX.
Apothecium of Cetraria - XV.
Archegonium of Aspidium - - - - XXIII.
Equisetum - - - - XXIV.
Funaria- - XXI.
Marchantia - XX.
Selaginella - XXV.
Ascospore of Cetraria XV.
Penicillium - XIV.
Peziza XIV.
Ascus of Cetraria XV.
Penicillium XIV.
Peziza XIV.
Aspidium Filix-mas (Male Shield Fern) - XXII.
Bacterium II-
Bacillus Anthracis HI.
Carpogonium of Chara - - - - XIX.
Penicillium - - - - XIV.
Peziza XIV.
Polysiphonia ... XVIII.
Cetraria islandica (Iceland Moss) - - XV.
Chara (Stonewort) - - - - XIX.
Cladophora - - V.
Conceptacle of Fucus XIII.
Conjugation of Cosmarium - - - - VI.
Frustulia VI.
Mucor VIII.
Spirogyra - - ' " V1,
Cosmarium Botrytis VII.
Meneghinii - - - - VI.
Cystocarp of Polysiphonia - - - - XVIII.
Diatoma vulgaris VI.
Elaters of Equisetum XXIV.
Marchantia XX.
Embryo of Equisetum XXIV.
Selaginella XXV.
Endosperm of Selaginella - XXV.
Enteromorpha V.
FIGS.
14
h 2, 3
3,4
3,4, 5
9
3
3
6,8
8
5
1
4, 5
i,5
5,6
6
10
6
8
10, 12, 13
\a
4
9
4
1,3,5,6,7
i,3
3,7
11
5
6,9
11, 12
5
10, 11
4
3,5
10
2,3,4
4,5
1
3,4
8
5
3,4
1
1
1, 2, 3, 4
1,2
9, 10
15
7
5,6
i-4
8
2
14
8
11
11
13, 14
10
8,9,10,11
l'LATKS. I'ICS.
Equisetum (Horsetail) XXIV. 1,2,3,12
Euglena I. 8
Fertilization of Polysiphonia - - - XVIII. 4
Fucus (Bladder Wrack) - - - XIII. 1
Funaria ------- XXI. 2
Gemmae of Lunularia XX. 5
Gills of Mushroom XVII. 4,5
Gloeocapsa I- 1
Gonidia of Cetraria ' XV. 2, 3
Cladophora — Zoo-gonidia - - V. 4, 5
Mucor — Endo-gonidia - - VIII. 4,5
Oedogonium — Zoo-gonidia - - XI. 8, 9, 16
Pandorina — Zoo-gonidia - - IV. 30, //
Penicillium — Stylo-gonidia - - XIV. 6, 7
Phytophthora — Stylo-gonidia - XI. 2, 3, 4
Do. Zoo-gonidia - XI. 5, 6, 7, 8
Polysiphonia — Tetra-gonidia - XVII. 10, 11
Protococcus — Zoo-gonidia - - IV. id
Ulothrix — Zoo-gonidia - - IV. 5, 6
Ulva — Zoo-gonidia V. 7
Vaucheria — Zoo-gonidia - - XI. 2, 3
Yeast — Endo-gonidia - - - I. 9^,/
Growing point of Chara - - ' - - XIX. 2
Plocamium - - - XVII. 9
Hydrodictyon (Water-net) - - - - IV. 10
Laminaria (Tangle) XIII. 10,11
Leaf of Barberry with Aecidium-fruits - - XVI. I
Lycopodium XXV. 2
Wheat with Rust - - - - XVI. 4
Leaf— fertile of Chara XIX. 3,4
Equisetum - - - - XXIV. 5
Fern - - ' - , - - XXII. 2
Lycopodium - - - XXV. 3
Leaf-sheath of Equisetum - - - - XXIV. 1, 2, 3
Life History of Chara XIX. XXVI.
Conferva, etc. - - - V.
Conjugate - - - - VI.
Equisetum r XXIV. XXVI.
Fern XXIII. XXVI.
Flowering Plant - - . - XXVI.
Fucus XIII.
Lycopodium - - - XXV.
Marchantia XX. XXVI.
Moss XXI. XXVI.
Mucor ----- VIII. XXVI.
Myxomycetes v - - - V.
Oedogonium - - - XI. XXVI.
Pandorina - - - - IV.
Penicillium - - - - " XIV.
Phytophthora - - - XII.
Pine XXVI.
Polysiphonia - - - XVIII.
Protococcus - - - - IV.
Rust of Wheat - - - XVI.
Selaginella - - - - XXV. XXVI.
Spirillum - - - - H.
Ulothrix --- - IV. XXVI.
Vaucheria - XI.
Volvox X.
Yeast - - - - - I.
Lunularia (Moonwort) XX. 1
INDEX.
PLATES.
Lycopodium (Club-moss) .... XXV.
Macrosporangium of Pilularia ... XXIV.
Selaginella - - - XXV.
Macrospore of Pilularia .... XXIV.
Selaginella - XXV.
Marchantia (Liverwort) .... XX.
Micrococcus II.
Microsporangium of Pilularia - - - XXIV.
Selaginella - - - XXV.
Microspore of Pilularia .... XXIV.
Selaginella '- - - XXV.
Mucor (Brown Mould) VIII.
Myxomycetes (Slime Fungi) — Amoeboid and
Plasmodium stages V.
Nostoc ' I-
Oedogonium XL
Oogonium (with Oosphere) of Fucus - - XIII.
Oedogonium - XL
Vaucheria - XL
Volvox -' - IX.
Oospore of Fucus XIII.
Oedogonium - - - • - XL
Vaucheria XL
Volvox globator - - - - IX.
Volvox minor X.
Oscillatoria I.
Palmella I.
Pandorina IV.
Paraphyses of Cetraria . . . XV.
Fern XXII.
Fucus , XIII.
Funaria XXI.
Peziza XIV.
Penicillium (Green Mould) - XIV.
Peristome of Polytrichum - XXI.
Funaria XXI.
Peziza - XIV.
Phytophthora infestans (Potato Disease
Fungus) XII.
Pilularia (Pillwort) XXIV.
Pinna of Fern XXII.
Pinnule of Fern - - - - - - XXII.
Pollen-grain of Angiosperm - - - - XXVI.
Gymnosperm ... XXVI.
Polysiphonia (Red Sea-weed) - - - XVII. 8 ; XVIII. i
Polytrichum (Hair Moss) .... XXI.
Pro-embrj o of Chara XIX.
Prothallus of Equisctum .... XXIV.
Fern XXIII
Lycopodium .... XXV.
Selaginella .... XXV.
T otococcus IV.
Piotoncma of Moss XXI.
Respiratory pore of Lunularia ... XX.
Rivularia I.
Rust of Wheat XVI.
Saccharomyces (Yeast) - - - - I.
Sclerolium of Mushroom .... XVIL
Scytonema I.
i
M
7
16
7, 10
6
1,2,3
14
7
15
14, 15
6
7, 17
2, 4, 5, 6
11, 12, 13
4,5
3
7
14, 15
6
4
2,3,4,5,6
2
7
3
3
5
2,4
3
2
6
7
8
1
1
13
2,3
2, 3, 4, 5
2
1
1
9
9, 12
3
5
8, 10
1,2
12
2,3
5
1-8
9
7
3,4
PLATES.
Selaginella - - - ... . XXV.
Spermatia of Cetraria XV.
Rust of Wheat - - - XVI.
Spike of Equisetum XXIV.
Lycopodium - - - ' - - XXV.
Spirillum - - - - - - II.
Spirochete 'II.
Spirogyra VI.
Sporangium of Ar'cyria - - - - V.
Equisetum .... XXIV.
Fern XXII.
Lycopodium - - - . XXV.
Mucor VIII.
Spores of Bacillus III.
Chara XIX.
Equisetum XXIV.
Fern ------ XXII. 7;
Lycopodium XXV.
Marchantia XX.
Moss XXI.
Mucor — Chlamydo-spores - - VIII.
Mushroom XVIL
Myxomycetes V.
Polysiphonia — Carpo-sp'ores - - XVIII.
Rust of Wheat — Aecidio-spores - XVI.
Teleuto-spores - XVI.
Uredo-spores - XVI.
Spirillum II.
Sporidium of Rust of Wheat - - - XVI.
Sporocarp or Spore-fruit of Marchantia - XX.
Moss - - XXI.
Penicillium - XIV.
Pilularia - - XXIV.
Stem of Aspidium - - - . - - XXII.
Fucus XIII.
Laminaria XIII.
Thallus of Cetraria — Vertical Section - - XV.
Lunularia do. - XX.
Marchantia do. - - XX.
Trichogyne of Peziza XIV.
Polysiphonia - XVIII.
Ulothrix IV.
Ulva - V.
Vaucheria XL
Volvox globator ' - IX.
Volvox minor — Young X.
Zooglcea of Bacillus - - - - - III.
Micrococcus - - - - II.
Spirillum II.
Zoospore of Enteromorpha - - - - V.
Myxomycetes - - - - V.
Pandorina IV.
Ulothrix IV.
Zygospore of Cosmarium - - - - VI.
Frustulia VI.
Mucor VIII.
Pandorina ... - IV.
Spirogyra - VI.
Ulothrix IV.
6
6
2
1, 2,4
1
7,8
6
1-4
15
6,7
5,6
3
2,3
2-7
7,8
8
XXIII. 1,2
4
11
10, 11
6
5,6
\\c
2
2,3
6,8
4, 5, 6, 7
Se-z
8,9
10
6,7,9
9
13, 14
1
8,9
10, 11
2, 3
4
7
5
3,4 •
4,9
6,7
1
1,2
7
5
3
8a
11,12,13
14c
Sa-e
7,9
11, 12, 13
15
8,9
2f,g
7
8
TVNews
OpenLibrary