Full text of "A process for development of a leadership and management program for Imperial Iranian Navy junior officers."

A PROCESS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF

A LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

FOR IMPERIAL IRANIAN NAVY JUNIOR OFFICERS

Al i reza Eshghi

fcUDLtY KNOX LIBRARY.
IJMVAL PCS i

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Monterey, California

THESIS

A
FOR

A PROCESS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF
LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
IMPERIAL IRANIAN NAVY JUNIOR OFFICERS

Alireza Eshghi

June 1977

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Definitions of leadership and management are discussed
in reference to Iranian culture. A feasible, systematic
process is proposed for the development of a formal manage-
ment education program for Imperial Iranian junior naval
officers with concentration upon needs assessment, instructor

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selection and training evaluation,

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A Process for Development of
a Leadership and Management Program
for Imperial Iranian Navy Junior Officers

ALIREZA ESHGHI
Commander, Imperial Iranian Navy
B.S., Italian Naval Academy 1965

Submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN MANAGEMENT

from the
NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
June 1977

-tY KNOX LIBRARY,

AL POSTGRADUATE 'SCHOOL
MONTFRPY Oa mf pc{ 940

Abstract

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter I - INTRODUCTION 7

What is Management? 8

Is Management Culture-Bound? 10

Can Manaqement Training Programs Improve Management

Skills? 16

What is Leadership 19

Chapter II - BACKGROUND OF U.S.N. EFFORTS 2 4

Leadership in the United States Navy and

U.S. Marine Corps 25

Leadership and Management Schools 27

Human Resource Management Center 3

Prospective Commanding Officer - Prospective

Executive Officer Schools 35

Chapter III - A PROCESS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF A LEADERSHIP
AND MANAGEMENT PROGRAM FOR IMPERIAL IRANIAN NAVY JUNIOR

OFFICERS 37

Identification of Needs 40

Training Objectives 48

Testing 48

Planning the Training Strategy 49

A Proposed Procedure for Selection of Leadership

and Management Instructors 54

Developing the Training Course 64

Providing the Training 64

Immediate On-The-Job Application and Feedback 64

Evaluation of the Training 65

Chapter IV - (CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE

RESEARCH) 7 3

Inconsistency Between the Formal Education and Actual

Practices on the Job, and the O.D. Dimension 73

If the Education is not in tune with the Societal

Changes ..... 76

Top Management's Support $%?

Conclusions 80

BIBLIOGRAPHY 83

INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST 85

I. INTRODUCTION

There was a time when management assumed that qualified
managers could be found in an organization when needed and that
good men invariably would rise to the top. In fact, there are
some who still adhere to this principle. They believe that
formal programs for the systematic development of manager per-
sonnel are uneconomical and a waste of time, money, and effort.
In industry as a whole, however, there is a growing awareness
that management can no longer afford to make such assumptions,
and management authorities feel that probably the greatest
problem facing management today is that of finding, developing,
and retaining capable people to assume leadership roles. Men
and women with the ability to think and act responsibly, to work
cooperatively and to provide others the opportunity to become
effective leaders are not always recruited. They must be developed

This thesis is concerned with the development of management
skills by training, but it will be meaningless to speak about
training for development of management skills unless the follow-
ing questions are answered.

1. What is management? If it is not clear, what are the
nature and principles of management, how can it be
taught?

2. Are the management principles transferable to other
countries with different cultures?

3 . Can training improve the management?

WHAT IS MANAGEMENT?

If we consider management a profession, then it follows
that we should be able to define what a manager is. Only if we
know what a manager is can we address principles that are appli-
cable to the act of managing. Because of the varying nature of
organizations, our definition may have many interpretations. The
statement that "Management is what a manager does" seems to make
sense until the variation in the kind of work done by many mana-
gers is observed. Definition and interpretations of management
vary widely. Some see management as a combination of personal
and administrative skills. Some see it as a technique of leader-
ship. Others define it as a means of coordination and coopera-

tion. These definitions are not enough for our needs. For our

purpose we must be able to identify management as an amount of
knowledge and skill based on some general principles, which can
be verified in terms of organization practice. We should be able
to see management as a distinct activity for an organization
which can be improved and developed.

It has often been argued whether managing is an art or a
science. Managing is an art, but so are engineering, medicine,
accounting, and football. For art is the application of know-
ledge to reality with a view to accomplishing some concrete
results, ordinarily with compromise, blend, or design, to get the
best total results. As can be readily recognized, the best art

1 Louis A. Allen, Management and Organization , McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company, Inc. p. 3.

2 Loc . Cit. p. 5.

arises where the artist possesses a store of organized and appli-

cable knowledge and understands how to apply it to reality.

The task of management can be said to be an art. There is
every reason to believe that it will succeed best if the practi-
tioner has a store of applicable and organized knowledge to serve
him. This knowledge, when organized, is science. When it is
organized in such a way as to serve practice best, it becomes
truly operational science. It is the job of management theory
to act. Omans has said,

"A classification provides a set of pigeonholes,
a filing cabinet, in which facts can accumulate.
For nothing is more lost than a loose fact. The
empty folders of the file demand filling in time.
The accumulation makes necessary a more economi-
cal filing system, with more cross references,
and a new theory is born.
But even if the organized and applicable knowledge of a
manager can be seen as science which will act through the theo-
ries and principles, the question still remains, what are these
principles? This question cannot be answered unless it is clear
what kind of organization we are speaking about, and what are
the factors which have effect upon that organization. For a

3 HAROLD KOONTZ , "The Importance of Distinguishing Between
the Science and Art of Management" , Academy of Management Journal
Volume 12, No. 4, December 1969, p. 420.

4 G. C. HOMANS, The Human Group , (New York: Harcourt,
Brace, and World, 1950) , p. 5.

specific organization, a design for the development of management
will be meaningless without stating a concept, which should allow
for the fact that some managers may manage with good or bad
judgement, with great or little experience, with exemplary or
undesirable character traits; that management may be practiced in
similar terms by all kinds of people within that organization.
Our concept of management should provide for the identification
of skills that can be trained and developed.

IS MANAGEMENT CULTURE-BOUND?

As the subject of management is of wide interest in the
world, the question whether or not management is a science
with universal application has concerned scholars. It is gener-
ally recognized that effective management is the critical element
in national growth and organizational success. But there is not
general agreement that management is a real science explaining
phenomena regardless of national and cultural environment. A
considerable amount of difference has been expressed on the ques-
tion whether management is culture-bound. Those who say manage-
ment is culture-bound reason that since management practices
differ and people and their cultural environments vary, management
theory and principles that apply to a developed country are not
applicable in different cultural environments. Even sometimes
within the same national culture, some principles of management
may apply to business, but not to the military or to Government,
or even among different sizes of business or between businesses

in different industries. GONZALEZ and McMILLAN are among those
who often state that management is culture-bound. They concluded,
on the basis of two years study in Brazil, that American manage-
ment experiences abroad provided evidence that their uniquely

5
American philosophy of management is not universally applicable.

It is true that Americans are generally credited with having

the most advanced management competence. But the question is:

To what extent can American management principles, practices, and

general know-how be transferred effectively to other countries at

what cost, and to what degree and extent is the overall process

and effectiveness of management constrained by cultural variables?

Based on research in comparative management, it appears that
management virtually everywhere performs the same basic manage-
rial functions, if such functions are defined as planning and
decision making, controlling, organizing, staffing, and direction
or supervision. Of course, these can be broken down and classi-
fied into descriptive elements common to the management process.
It also appears that firms everywhere operate either consciously
or unconsciously with a common framework of policy decisions
related to different organization functions, such as production,
research and development, finance, procurement, personnel, and
so forth. However, the specific ways and degree of effectiveness

5 R. R. GONZALEZ and C. McMILLAN, JR, Journal of the Academy
of Management , Volume 4, No. 1 (April 1961), p. 41.

6 HAROLD KOONTZ, "A Mode for Analyzing the Universality of
Management", Academy of Management Journal , Volume 12, No. 4 (Dec.
1969) , p. 418.

7 BARRY M. RECHMAN, "Significance of Cultural Variables",
Academy of Management Journal, Volume 8, No. 4 (Dec. 1965), p. 294.

in which the overall management process tends to be performed
by organizations in different countries differs very much
in many cases. There appear to be some dominant patterns of
managerial activity in various countries, especially among
similar branches of the organizations. Does it mean that
managers in different countries tend to perform their jobs
differently because their way tends to be more effective,
because they have different objectives, because certain
cultural or other types of environment constraints (political,
legal, economic) are operating on them, or because of
ignorance or lack of interest in other more effective ways
to manage? If it is revealed that the answer is ignorance or
lack of interest, it means that their management is affected
by various educations and/or sociological constraints. The
above questions must be answered before considering with confi-
dence that certain management practices are significantly con-
strained by certain cultural variables.

BARRY M. RICHMAN, in an article of significance, has men-
tioned the sociological and educational constraints (Table 1)
in which he has tentatively classified various common elements
of the overall management process (Table 2) . He pointed out
that the element of management process are essentially static.
Managerial effectiveness is determined in large part by dynamic
behavior factors or conditions operating within the organiza-

tions (Table 3) .

8 BARRY M. RICHMAN, Academy of Management Journal , Volume
8, No. 4 (Dec. 1965), p. 296-300.

TABLE I. 9

SOCIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS

1. View toward business and its managers.

2. View toward authority and subordinate.

3. Inter-organizational copperation, which involves the
interaction among business firms, labor unions,
Government agencies, and educational institutions.

4. View of achievement.

5. Class structure and individual mobility.

6. View toward wealth and material gain.

7. View toward scientific method.

8. View toward risk-taking.

9. View toward change.

EDUCATIONAL CONSTRAINTS

1. Literacy level and primary education.

2. Specialized vocational and technical training and
general secondary education.

3. Higher and advance education.

4. Special management training programs (not run by
business firm) .

5. Attitude toward education.

6. Education match with human requirement of productive
enterprises.

Loc. Cit. P. 297

TABLE 2. 10

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIOUS COMMON ELEMENTS OF THE OVERALL
MANAGEMENT PROCESS.

1. Methodologies, technique and tools used in training.

2. Time horizon of plan.

3. Degree to which the organization is mechanical
(pre-programmed) .

4. Type of performance and control standard used.

5. Degree of centralization and decentralization.

6. Degree of work specialization.

7. Spans of control.

8. Grouping of activities and departmentation.

9. Extent and use of committees.

10. Selection and promotion criteria used.

11. Nature and extent of formal company training program

12. Degree of participative vs. authoritarian management,

13. Communication structure and technique.

14. Techniques used for motivating personnel.

15. Nature and extent of employee welfare services and
facilities .

10 Loc. Cit. p. 298

TABLE 3

DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR FACTORS

1. Ease or difficulty of obtaining personnel with desire,
skill, and ability.

2. Ease or difficulty of motivating employees.

3. Degree of identification that tends to exist between
the interest and objectives of individuals, depart-
ment, and overall firm.

4. Degree of frustration, morale, absenteeism, and turn-
over that tends to exist among enterprise employees.

5. Degree of cooperation and conflict among employees.

6. Degree of information distortion and ineffective
communication within the enterprise.

7. Degree of unproductive time expended in unmeaningful
bargaining, restrictive practices, etc.

8. Ease or difficulty of introducing changes and innova-
tions in enterprise operations.

9. Degree to which scientific method is applied by enter-
prise employees.

10. Degree of organizational flexibility in causing or
adapting to changing condition.

3. CAN MANAGEMENT TRAINING PROGRAMS IMPROVE MANAGEMENT SKILL?

Management development might be defined as a continuing
process to increase the effectiveness of organization members
through planned learning. This thesis is concerned with a spe-
cific phase of management development, that is, a training
program to increase the knowledge of management groups concern-
ing functional management theory and practice and increase the
necessary skills to apply this knowledge. Training can be an
effective device to help management in attaining its goals.
The question is, can it be done? Or, more precisely, is there
a cause-and-ef f ect relationship between training (management
strategy) and future trainee behavior (management goal) ?

Some formal training undoubtedly improves manager perfor-
mance and reduces the time required for adaptation to present
and potential positions. It can be carried to an extreme.
There is little in the way of objective measures to indicate
exactly what is gained by various kinds of programs. Even if
apparently there is no tangible effect that makes reliable any
kind of education, every type of organization including military,
hospital, university, governmental agency, and business hire
college graduates, sending present personnel back to study for
master degrees, and spend large sums of money and effort for
management development . 12

11 HENRY H. ALBERS , Principles of Management: A Modern
Approach , 3d. ed. , (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1969). p. 676.

12 FRED LUTHANS, JAMES W. WALKER, RICHARD M. HODGETTS ,
"Evidence on the Validity of Management Education" , Academy of
Management Journal, Volume 12, No. 4, (Dec. 1969).

A research study was done to validate the effect that
college education in general had on-job success in the entire
marketing department of a major petroleum corporation. The
single criterion used in this study was a promotability rating
given by the man's immediate supervisor. This rating was re-
viewed by the next level manager. The 3,202 marketing personnel
were rated as promotable and non-promotable. The large majority
(75 percent) of non-promotables had not attended college at all.
On the other hand, practically all (84 percent) of those per-
sonnel considered eligible for advancement in the company had

13
attended college and most had received their degrees.

Warner and Abegglen found that executives in 1952 were

14
better educated than their counterparts of 1928.

A 1959 survey of 562 managers from a number of industrial
classifications revealed that 61 percent of top management, 63
percent of middle managers, and 62 percent of the lower level
managers were college graduates.

Therefore, it is seen that formal education does seem to
correlate with manager success.

13 FRED LUTHANS, JAMES W. WALKER, RICHARD M. MODGETTS ,
"Evidence on the Validity of Management Education" , Academy of
Management Journal , Volume 12, No. 4 (Dec. 1969), p. 453.

14 W. LLOYD WARNER and JAMES C. ABEGGLEN, Occupational
Mobility in American Business and Industry, 1928-1952 , (Minnea-
polis: University of Minnesota Press, 1955) and Big Business
Leaders in America , (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955) .

15 FRANK C. PIERSON, The Education of American Businessmen ,
(New York, McGraw-Hill, 1959), p. 102.

Another research survey was done by Crane (1972) on the same
subject. This survey shows the correlation between management train-
ing and perceived effectiveness, and shows even that this per-
ceived effectiveness varies with the training technique. In a
mailed survey of 200 ASTD (American Society for Training and
Development) members. The applications and perceived effective-
ness of various action-oriented involvement techniques were
explored. The six techniques were: role playing, case method/
incident process, simulation business/games, group discussion/
conference, program instruction and inbasket techniques. A
question was asked of each of these techniques that were used.
The question was: "How effective is this technique as a train-
ing device?" The four alternatives were (1) highly effective,
(2) moderately effective, (3) limited effectiveness, and (4)
ineffective. The response rate for the mailed questionnaire
was 86 of 200 (43 percent). The responding sample was heavily
weighted with large corporation (organizations concerned with
more than 5,000 employees) and approximately 90 percent of
respondents were training managers or directors. All of these
respondents were using one or more of the participative tech-
niques in their management training program. The result was
that perceived effectiveness was clearly positive for all tech-
niques and the order of perceived effectiveness based on the

16 L. L. BYARS and D. P. CRANE, "Training by Objectives",
Training and Development Journal, 1969, 23 (6), p. 38-49.

"high" response was simulation/business games (61%), programmed
instruction (58%) , inbasket (52%) , group discussion/conference
(48%) , role playing (45%) , and case methods/incident process
(38%). In all cases, at least 90% of the responses were in the
"high" or moderate categories.

The above surveys and a number of researches done in this
area, show that management training can be an effective device
to assist management in attaining its goals. How effective that
is, of course, depends upon how appropriate the program is rela-
ted to the organizational nature and needs.

Because this thesis is concerned with an approach to
management development in the Imperial Iranian Navy, it will be
appropriate to explore how military organizations view manage-
ment development.

But whenever there is some discussion of management in mili-
tary organizations, leadership seems to be the main and dominant
factor of management. In fact, many see management as a tech-
nique or a subset of leadership. The impact of effective
leaders is dramatically demonstrated over and over again on a
national scale in every country's history, and on a local scale
in every organization's past, especially in military organiza-
tions. It thus seems to be necessary to explain what is meant
by "leader" and "leadership."

WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?

Although the terms leader and leadership are freely used in
the literature as well as in every day language, there is a

great deal of misunderstanding of what is really meant by the
terms. What, then, do the terms leader and leadership mean?
Let us look at some definitions as they were made in a sequence
of time.

The leader is one who succeeds in getting others to follow

. . 18
him.

Leadership is the process of influencing group activities

toward goal setting and achievement.

The leader is the man who comes closest to realizing the
norms the group values highest; this conformity gives him

his high rank, which attracts people and implies the right

to assume control of the group.

The leader is the person who creates the most effective

u ^21

change in group performance.

Leadership is the initiation of acts that result in a

consistent pattern of group interaction directed toward

the solution of mutual problems.

17 Fred E. Fielder and Martin M. Chemers, Leadership and
Effective Management , pp. 3-11.

18 W. H., "Three Distinctions in the Study of Leaders,"
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 23 (1928), p. 144-157.

19 Stogdill, R. , "Personal Factors Associated with Leader-
ship: A Survey of the Literature," Journal of Psychology , 25,
(1948. 35-71) .

20 G. C. Homans, The Human Group , Harcourt, Brace,
Jovanovich, 1950.

21 R. B. Cattlell, "New Concepts for Measuring Leadership

in Terms of Group Syntality" , Human Relations , 4, (1951): p. 161-84

22 J. K. Hemphill, "A Proposed Theory of Leadership in Small
Groups: Second Preliminary Report." Personnel Research Board,
Ohio State University.

Leadership is the exercise of authority and the making of

, . . 23
decisions.

Two important threads run through all of these definitions.
The first is that leadership is a relationship between people in
which influence and power are unevenly distributed on a legiti-
mate basis. This power may be given to the leader by the con-
sent of the group members, by a contractual work agreement, or
by law, but it is his to exercise. The second important thread
is that there can be no leaders in isolation. If somebody wants
to know whether he is a leader, he must see if there is someone
following him - and since one cannot really coerce people to

follow him, leadership implies that followers must explicitly

i
or implicitly consent to their part in this influence relation-
ship. The leader becomes involved with his subordinates, and
it makes a difference to him whether he is liked or disliked,
whether he is perceived as a fair or unfair leader, and above
all, whether he has the support of his group in performing
assigned tasks. A psychoanalytic formulation proposed by Freud,
views the leader as a father figure, as someone to whom the
group members have transferred the feelings they have toward
their fathers. These feelings are love, respect, and fear.

Whatever the explanation of leadership is, however, the
leadership situation is more than a transaction based on an
exchange of economic commodities. It is, perhaps, nearer to the

23 R. DUBIN, Human Relations in Administration: The
Sociology of Organization, With Leading-and Cases , Prentice-Hall,

1951.

father-son relationship, as Freud has suggested, than it is to
the relationship of salesman and customer, or lawyer and client.
Now the point is, who is the manager and who is the leader?
If we identify the manager as a leader, perhaps it may be easier
to determine the nature of management and leadership. Stated
simply, a leader is one who guides and directs other people.
Because he has subordinates subject to his command, the leader
must give direction and purpose to their effort. How does the
leader provide direction? Two points must be established.
First, leadership is a kind of work. It is not a special psycho-
logical quality or the exercise of unique personality traits.
The second point is that all work performed by leaders is not
management work. This is why it has been seen that many out-
standing leaders have been exceeded by poor managers. Leadership
may be classified as (a) personal leadership, and (b) management
leadership. Often by the time of reaching maturity, an indivi-
dual has acquired the personality traits necessary for personal

24
leadership, and he must still learn management leadership.

There are many advantages to be gained if these personal

leadership traits are already found in an outstanding individual

or if he has special talents. The results accomplished by this

leader will be outstanding. Because charismatic leaders often

structure their energy in traditional lines, their leadership

tends to be centralized. It can mean fast, aggressive action

and great flexibility.

24 Allen, Op. Cit. , p. 7.

The main and important weakness of this type of leadership
is the weaknesses of the leader himself. If his judgement is
poor, or if he cannot recognize or understand the importance of
some vital aspect of the work, all this will be reflected down
the line. In management-leadership, the leader focuses upon
the performance of many elements of the organization, which he,
because of his organizational position, can orchestrate effec-
tively. Here the leader, as manager, still exercises personal
attributes, but he does not expect his own charisma to be
replicated. His subordinates have different jobs and unique
skills. He often establishes subordinate management positions,
and in this way he can spread his leadership, by delegation,
through a great size enterprise.

Because the management leadership is not determined only (-
with the personality traits and a set of values, it is more
subjected to change. The leader can adapt himself to the
changing demands of the situation, and therefore, an effective
leadership training program can improve his effectiveness of
leadership management practices.

II. BACKGROUND OF USN EFFORTS

Even now in this technological and computerized world,
leadership and management is perhaps the most potent factor in
war. In no profession is the quality of leadership more essen-
tial than in the military service. Upon it depends not only
men's lives, but the success or failure of battles. Leadership
must be developed in the day to day lives of military men with
the ultimate objective of it's application in combat. It is
then that its presence or absence becomes quickly apparent.
For it is then that all men are reduced to that common ground:
The conflict between duty and self-preservation.

When bullets are whining and bombs falling, rank and
station mean little, and a man's life becomes his most cherished
possession. It is then that men gravitate toward their leader,
be he field officer or lieutenant. Fortunate is he, who during
the stress and strain of battle, is able to hold the confidence
of his men, to think logically, to make sensible decisions, and
to carry them into effect promptly and decisively.

"It is not easy to attain the required qualities of leader-
ship. It may be true that some leaders are born, but for most
of us a continuing effort is required to improve on the quality
we know the leader must have. Those who make the effort will
be the leaders the Navy must have to do its job now and in the
future. "

WHAT THE U.S. NAVY IS DOING TO IMPROVE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
IN THE NAVY.

It is worthwhile to begin this subject with General Order
No. 21. 26

"LEADERSHIP IN THE UNITED STATES NAVY ^AND MARINE CORPS

Part I. Discussion

The United States Navy-Marine Corps records of victories,
achievements on land, and in the air in peace and war have
won for these services an honored position in our great
nation. This heritage was passed on to us by our leaders,
both officer and enlisted, whose outstanding examples of
courage, integrity and devotion to duty are historically
significant. They accomplished their missions successfully
by high caliber leadership and personal example. The
strength of our nation and our services depends upon coura-
geous, highly motivated, responsible individuals.

Part II. Objective

The objective of this general order is to achieve an ever-
improving state of combat readiness by

a. Emphasizing that successful leadership at all levels
is based on personal example and more responsibility.

2 5 ADMIRAL DAVID L. McDONALD, Chief of Naval Operations,
(USN) "United States Navy Manual for Leadership Support."
p. i

26 G. 0. No. 21, Navy Department, Washington D.C.,
1 May 1963 /S/ Fred Korth, Secretary of the Navy, United
States Navy Manual for Leadership Support, Op. Cit. , p. 11.

b. Insuring that every man and woman are themselves
examples of military ideals.

c. Requiring personal attention to, and supervision of,
subordinates .

Part III. Action

1. The Chief of Naval Operations and the Commandant of

the Marine Corps shall be directly responsible for maintain-
ing optimum leadership standards. The under secretary of
the Navy shall be responsible for the proper implementation
of this order.

2. Fleet, force, type, and administrative commanders shall
review each command's leadership posture as an integral
part of military inspections, and shall include their evalu-
ation in inspection reports.

3. Every command and every major office and bureau of the
Navy Department shall, on a continuing basis, review its
leadership standards; each shall take effective measures
to improve them and shall develop an awareness of the need
for good leadership by providing programs for instruction
in leadership principles and practices.

4. All persons in responsible positions, military and civi-
lian, shall require that their subordinates discharge their
duties in accordance with traditional concept of Navy and
Marine Corps standards, paying particular attention to:

a. Moral responsibility

b. Personal example of behavior and performance

c. Established standards for personnel development.

d. Integration of principles and practices of leadership
into everyday routine.

e. Effective organization and administration."

The United States Navy, besides the use of on the job
training techniques for development of management and leadership
skills, has provided a diversity of formal education in this
area for the officers. Because there is a growing belief within
the U.S. society, both military and civilian, that the manage-
ment and leadership has a direct and high relationship with the
attainment of desired goals in any type of organization, the
money spent on management and leadership training with respect
to other kinds of education is growing at an increasing rate.
The formal management and leadership education in the United
States Navy may be generally divided into two parts. First,
there are long-term programs (Naval Postgraduate School, war
college, civilian universities, etc.). Secondly, short term
schools have been developed. This thesis is concerned with the
latter. Among this king of training format the U.S. Navy has

1. Leadership and management schools.

2. Human resource management centers.

3. Perspective commanding officer-perspective executive
officer schools.

1. LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT TRAINING SCHOOL

The information of the course provided for U.S. officers

in this school is as follows:

27 Leadership and Management for Officers, A-7c-0018,
Instructor's Manual, p. 1.

Course Mission:

"To provide officers in the grade of Lieutenant Commander
and below with the latest and most pertinent information and
practical application in leadership methods, management tech-
niques and skills for applying the Navy's human goals plan.
The course will enhance the graduate's knowledge in the fields
of responsibility, accountability and authority, management
and motivation, theory and application, organizational develop-
ment, . interpersonal communications, problem solving applica-
tions, crisis management and pertinent human resources manage-
ment information. Mastery of this material will enable the
officer graduates to more effectively execute the duties of
division officers or department heads for either afloat or
ashore units.
Personnel Eligible:

Commissioned and warrant officers through the grade of
Lieutenant Commander.
Obligated Service: Not applicable.
NOBC Earned: Not applicable.
Physical Requirements: None.
Security Clearance Required: None.
Prerequisite Training: None.
Related and/or Follow-on Training: None.
Grading weight factor: Not applicable.

Phase I. RESPONSIBILITY, ACCOUNTABILITY AUTHORITY AND POWER

DESCRIPTION: This phase of the course will center on

defining the operating parameters within which the
student works. This will include consideration of
constraints and freedom of action in his day to day
work environment.

6.6 hours

Phase II. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION: This phase will center
on effective interpersonal relations and communica-
tions within the Naval organization.

3 0.2 hours

Phase III. MANAGEMENT AND MOTIVATION: This phase will focus
on the examination and personalization of current
management and motivation techniques available to
today's Naval leader.

15.8 hours

Phase IV. ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT: This phase will concen-
trate on analysis and effective management of organ-
izational dynamics within the student's operating
parameters .

6.5 hours

Phase V. PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION MAKING: This phase
will focus on decision making and problem solving
techniques available to today's Navy manager.

6 . hours

Phase VI. PRACTICAL APPLICATION IN SPECIAL MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS
The final phase will deal with the practical appli-
cation of learned skills to real Navy problems
within the student's operating parameters. Some of

the special problems of management are also dealt
with here, such as drug abuse, alcohol abuse, over-
seas diplomacy and equal opportunity programs.

9.5 hours
This course is taught in two weeks (80 hours) . The selected
subject to teach and distribution of hours are based on the needs
of the U. S. Navy, which is derived by the discovery of the

particular lacks of leadership by middle management in the U. S.

2 8
Navy. (Hick's Investigation)

2. HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CENTER

The U. S. Navy, in 1971, established a Human Resource
Development Project to develop, implement, and evaluate a
variety of inter-related, but separate, programs, including race
relations organizational development and management, overseas
diplomacy, drug and alcohol education, drug abuse control, and
alcoholism prevention. After a three-year developmental period,
the Navy Human Goals Plan integrated these programs and assigned
responsibility for their implementation and support within the

established Navy organization called the Human Resource Manage-

ment Support System. The elements which comprise the U.S.

Navy's Human Resource Management Support System are organized
into three major categories:

28 Op. Cit. , p. 5.

29 OPNAVINST 5300. 6B, "Navy Human Resource Management
Support System," p. 2.

(1) Human Resource Management, including leadership and
management, and overseas diplomacy.

(2) Equal Opportunity/Race Relations.

(3) Drug Abuse Control and Alcoholism Prevention.

The implementation of the Human Resource Management Support
System will assist in the achievement of the following objectives
for the U. S. Navy:

(1) Improved unit readiness and operational capability;

(2) Improved leadership and management of human resources
at all levels in the chain of command;

(3) Improved personnel stability through the retention of
top quality personnel in proper balance and to the
required numbers;

(4) Improved communications at all levels in the chain of
command;

(5) Improved image of the Navy as a professional organiza-
tion which recognizes individual contributions and the
desire for respect by Navy personnel, and the Navy's
desire for, and recognition of, the unique contribution
provided by personnel of all grades, rates, creeds, and
national origins;

(6) Greater career satisfaction, leading to increased
recruitment, retention of capable and dedicated indi-
viduals, and development of a stable force of career
personnel within the Navy;

(7) Demonstrated equal opportunity by the representative
assignment of minority personnel throughout all grades,
rates, and rating groups of the Navy;

(8) Guaranteed equality of promotional, administrative,
and disciplinary practices and policies for all per-
sonnel, regardless of race, creed, religion, sex, or
national origin;

(9) Increased overseas tour satisfaction and productivity,
improved U. S. Navy image overseas through positive
overseas diplomacy measures, and improved screening
and preparation of personnel for overseas assignment.

(10) Identification and reduction of conditions and oppor-
tunities leading to drug and alcohol abuse, and willing
acceptance and effective utilization of successfully
recovered personnel upon return to duty with the
command.

(11) Increased responsiveness to both command requirements
and individual needs through the development and
implementations of command and affirmative action
plans in the area.

Human Resource Management, with all the above objectives,
began to work since 1974 and is staffed by HRM specialists.
They are trained to employ consultant assistance methods for
supporting command actions in leadership and management and
other areas mentioned in the objectives. A schedule for Human
Resource Specialist availability will be settled. (This is

called an HRAV and is for a period of five days for each
command.) After the HRAV period has been scheduled, the HRM
cycle will normally be executed as in Figure 3.

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Initial
Visit

Data
Gathering

Diagnosis

Feedback

— >

*•

Step

Planning

Step 9

Step 8

Step 7

Step,, 6

Follow-up

Follon-on

Unit
Action

HRAV

We<

Figure 3.

STEP 1 - Initial Visit

A Human Resource Management Support Team will call upon
the commanding officer prior to the scheduled HRAV to describe
the capabilities and resources of the HRMC, to explain to the
commanding officer the HRM cycle, the purpose and confidenti-
ality of the Navy HRM survey, and to make arrangements for
assistance in administration of the survey.

STEP 2 - Data Gathering

The primary tool used to gather data on Human Resource
Management is the Navy HRM Survey. Interviews are used to
supplement the survey as appropriate.

STEP 3 - Diagnosis

During this step, the unit's survey and interview data is
analyzed. Now data is collated and displayed in order to assist
commands in determining their meaning and implications.

STEP 4 - Feedback

In this step, the HRMST provides the commanding officer
with the results of the survey and interviews.

STEP 5 - Planning

After the feedback, a planning session will be conducted
based upon the action areas and priorities set by the unit
commanding officer.

STEP 6 - Human Resource Availability Week

The required unit output for this 5 day period is the
development or modification of an existing CAP (Commanding Action
Plan) which can be promulgated in the command within thirty days
of completion of the HRAV. The HRMST generally employes a work-
shop methodology to assist commands, but if the commanding offi-
cers desire, the HRMST can recommend various other methods to
assist commands in meeting this requirement, e.g., workshops on
a variety of topics.

STEP 7 - Unit Action

This step is continuing actual implementation and monitoring
of actions set forth in the Command Action Plan.

STEP 8 - Follow-on

At the request of the unit commanding officer, follow-on
activities may be conducted to provide additional assistance in
the development and implementation of the Command Action Plan.

STEP 9 - Follow-up

Six to twelve months after the HRAV, a follow-up visit will
be scheduled for determining additional assistance, which may be
required by commanding officers to modify and update command
actions .
Foot note :

HRM: Human Resource Management

HRMC: Human Resource Management Center

HRAV: Human Resource Availability

HRMS : Human Resource Management Support

HRMST: Human Resource Management Support Team

CAP: Command Action Plan

3. PERSPECTIVE COMMANDING OFFICER - PERSPECTIVE EXECUTIVE
OFFICER SCHOOLS

The main purpose of this school is to prepare officers who
are going to have the assignments of commands and executive on
board the ships, in fact it is a transition course for the

mentioned jobs. The officers that attend this school will be
informed from the current leadership and management problems of
the command and executive, and they will be trained to cope
with them. In fact, one of the objectives of this school is to
encourage the student for a good cooperation with the Human
Resource Management Centers, which is believed a very effective
system for improvement of leadership and management.

Leadership and management is one of the most important
subjects, which is considered deeply through the whole military
and civilian organization in the world, because it is believed
that there is a direct relationship between productivity and
efficiency of the organization and leadership and management
exercised in the organization. The road to the systematic and
successful training of leadership and management is not an easy
one. There is not a quick, easy, or magic formula which is
guaranteed to produce satisfactory results. But the benefits
received by a successful training program are many and by far
outweigh its costs and other limitations. This is why we see
here in the Naval Postgraduate School with its high cost there
are several students of management from three countries of the
world.

Ill- A PROCESS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF A LEADERSHIP AND
MANAGEMENT PROGRAM FOR IMPERIAL IRANIAN NAVY JUNIOR OFFICERS

His Majesty Shahanshah Ariamehr's guidelines for the allo-
cation of Budget in 2536 (21-3-77 to 20-3-78) have been based
on the principle that our country should not only enjoy the
fruits of an ever-expanding economy, but that together with this
expansion it should also benefit from a comprehensive welfare
and social program based, on the one hand, upon the specific
characteristics and needs of an Iranian society, and on the
other hand, on the vista of a world in perpetual motion. Our
program should be along a path which will continue to keep us
ahead of events so that we shall never fall victim to unexpected
circumstances. Based on this principle, we can see that
parallel to economic and social development of the last few
years in Iran, the government has given special priority to the
strengthening of defense capabilities in order to maintain our
national independence and integrity because it is believed that
it is only in an atmosphere of national security that one can
implement these far-reaching economic and social programs. This
is the government's policy with respect to the nation's defense
capabilities, and its unique role in the preservation of the
country's independence and indeed its very existence. The
history has shown whenever a country has a good condition to
develop its economy, but it is not strong enough to protect the

3 Prime Minister Hoveyda , Keyhan International , February
26, 1977, p. 4.

situation, the enemies show themselves upon the horizon. 31

Based on this policy, the Iranian Armed Forces have been
expanding at a high rate during the last few years, and we see
as a part of this expansion of defense forces that the Imperial
Iranian Navy has an equally fast growth. This growth will
continue in the future. Power, speed, and restless energies
make heavy demands upon ships, aircraft, weapons, and upon the
methods of training and managing men. It is obvious that while
the weapons of war change, and the organizations to handle them
change, men also change. All of the people are largely the
products of their environment and their culture. As the envi-
ronment changes, the people change. Thus, there is a growing
schism of deep-rooted differences in the men entering today's
Navy from those who sailed the seas in previous years.
Officers and men with new ideas, new attitudes, and men with
backgrounds which differ substantially from the backgrounds of
some decades ago, will require development of their strengths,
recognition of their weaknesses, and a channeling of their
talents, to perform in the fast changing I. I. Navy of today.
To get people to do the Navy's job effectively requires
training, ingenuity and spirit. In the Navy, leadership is the
execution of the Navy's laws, regulations and customs as they
govern the relationships of superiors and subordinates. Where
the individual Naval officer is concerned, leadership consists
of his development of the human influences surrounding his

31 Admiral Habibollahi, C.N.O. of I.I.N

position through the sum of his beliefs, knowledge, and skills.
These are, of course, derived from his education, training and
experiences as a member of the Imperial Iranian Navy.

Recognizing that the primary concern of this thesis is to
design a process (a model) for improvement of leadership and
management, the first question will be "What are the leader-
ship and management skills?" This, of course, is a fundamental
question that must be asked prior to the development of any
skill training, therefore, the concentration will be first the
"Need Analysis". In this case, it will lead to the question of
what a successful leader actually does in his units. In this,
a pattern of leader actions can be found, which can be taught.
Second, "How to teach and administer the program?" Third,
"How to select instructors?" and finally, "How to evaluate
training. "

To create a rigorous scientific method, or to follow a very
well known method which led to a successful training program in
many enterprises and military organizations in different coun-
tries, does not mean that it can always work effectively in one's
own country. It is surprising how often formal training follows
the same pattern in many cultures. It may be fairly well done,
but if it is not systematic, we will never be sure that it's
done as well as it can be, and we will find it harder to change
it once it is instituted. This is what the system approach is
designed to avoid, and this is why in training and education,

■a o

these days the system is of central concern.

Using the systems approach to develop a training program
for the I. I. N. Junior Officers (Figure 2).

STEP 1 - Identification of Needs

If we are to prepare a training program for the I.I. Navy
Junior Officers, we would naturally want first to know what a
good performing officer (let's call him "superior officer")
ordinarily does that a not-so-good performing officer ("average
officer") would or could do with additional training and assis-
tance. (Note that we are not asking what does a superior offi-
cer feel.) In other words, based on the tasks assigned to the
officers, we need to make up a list of skills and knowledge
that are needed for an officer which will lead him to be a good
performer. Then we would designate those skills and knowledge
that the officers already have and those they will just have to
learn on the job, and what is left are the skills and knowledge
in which the officers must be trained. Next, we would examine
these skills and knowledges and group them into some logical
order. The task of Step 1 in this thesis is suggested to be
done by need assessment.

NEED ASSESSMENT

The principle objective of need analysis is to show a pro-
cess for finding the management and leadership skills needed for

32 A. K. QUINN, In Training, The System's The Thing ,
"Training and Development Journal," Vol. 24, No. 2, Feb. 1970,
p. 25 .

THE SYSTEM CYCLE OF TRAINING

STEP I

IDENTIFICATION
OF NEED

STEP VIII

FORMAL EVALUATION
OF THE TRAINING

STEP II

ESTABLISH
TRAINING OBJECTIVE

STEP VII

IMMEDIATE ON THE
JOB APPLICATION &
FEEDBACK

STEP III
TESTING

STEP VI

PROVIDING THE
TRAINING

STEP V

DEVELOPING THE
TRAINING COURSE

STEP IV
PLANNING
THE TRAINING
STRATEGY

Figure 2.
41

the Imperial Iranian Navy. To meet as much as possible this
objective, a process is described there in which there is a
synthesis of two separate methods.

The first is based on the procedure of job competency

assessment, developed by Harvard University Professor David C.

McClelland (1976) which leads to show the observed management

and leadership skills required.

The second method is known as the Echo Method, developed
by Richard Barthol of U.C.L.A., which shows the process of
exploring the perceived management and leadership skills in the
Navy. Before going through the methods that were mentioned
above, it is considered appropriate to point out the fact that
within the Navy there are different communities (e.g., line,
aviation, supply, etc.), and perhaps these communities have
different leadership and management skill requirements and at
different levels of priority. In the explanation of the above
methods, the Junior Officers are seen as a single corp, this
is only for the simplicity of showing how the methods work. In
fact, the same methods can be used for each community, and in
this way, the leadership and management skill needs will be
found for that community. Furthermore, it is assumed that all
Junior Officers within the same community will rotate in accor-
dance with career plans. Thus they will have different tours
of duty.

33 McBer and Company, "Identification of Competency Charac-
teristics of Superior Navy Officers for Leadership and Management
Training", p. 1.

IDENTIFICATION OF OBSERVED MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP SKILLS.

Methodology

1. Selection of Sample: As for those officers who are
subjected for the identification of management and leader-
ship skills, they must have some years of experience and
particularly they must have some tours of duty in which
they have exercised some management and leadership.
Therefore, it is assumed that the whole population will be
Lieutenants and Lieutenant Commanders. Among this popula-
tion, a number of officers will be randomly selected as
the sample.

2. Identification of "Superior" and "Average" Officers:
Officers in the sample will be rated "superior" or "average"
by their commanding officers with respect to the whole
population. Commanding officers can use any criterion that
they think is appropriate for this rating. Comparing this
rating with the results of the Navy evaluation system, and
by leaving the inconsistency result between two channels

of rating to a board of experienced officers for further
decision, all the officers in the sample can be divided into
superior and average officers. In fact, this shows who is
believed to be a superior officer and who is believed to be
an average officer in the actual environment and culture
and belief of the Navy.

3. "Behavioral Event" Interviewing: The officers in the
sample will be asked to describe in behaviorally specific

terms, critical management and leadership incidents in

which they participated. The technique of behavioral

34 —
event interviewing, developed by McClelland (197 6) ,

involves obtaining a number of descriptions of "behavioral

episodes." For example, an officer might be asked to

think of incidents or events in which he felt particularly

successful (or unsuccessful) , and then to describe in

detail the events leading up to the incident — when and

where the incident occurred, and how he was feeling and

reacting before, during and after it. A distinguishing

characteristic of this interview procedure is that it

elicits information from which actual behaviors can be

recognized, rather than eliciting interpretations or

perceptually biased recollections of general outcomes.

4. Content Analysis of Officers' Behavioral Events:

Analyzing the content of officers' behavioral events by

a board of experts will show a number of characteristics

which lead to successful management and leadership in the

Navy and can be divided into groups of characteristics

with respect to management functions. Furthermore, since

the officers in the sample were rated before as "superior"

and "average" officers, it is possible to compare the

superior and average interviewees in terms of the content

of their behavioral events. This will help to determine

the specification of characteristics which are present or

34 Loc. Cit. , p. 2 .

largely present in the "superior" and "average" officers,
and to identify the characteristics which are present in
the superior group and absent in the average group, and
these characteristics are the competency characteristics
that are likely to lead to more effective performance.
In summary, this method is likely to show the observed
iMANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP SKILLS by a set of characteris-
tics under their appropriate management functions, and it
shows the competency characteristics of Navy Officers,
which can be an input for the board of top management in
the Navy to decide what is needed as management and leader-
ship skill in settling the training program.

PERCEIVED MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP SKILL

To rely only on job competency assessment method for deter-
mining the management and leadership characteristics may not be
adequate, and in some situations may not show the desired results
With the variety of jobs and missions that officers are assigned
at sea or on shore, inside of the country or in other countries,
it is very difficult, if not impossible, to take a valid sample
from the whole population. For the same reason, to assume that
in the same community all officers will rotate and will confront
the situations which their behavioral event shows the skill
needed in that community, is not a correct assumption. In some
cases the officers may be assigned jobs which are not related
to their specific community. For example, a supply officer may

be assigned for Training Advisory to a foreign country, and
being a good and skilled supply officer does not mean that
he will effectively perform his new assignment.

The observed positive or negative characteristic of the
officers by their behavioral events may depend on the time
they occurred, on the place they occurred, on specific organi-
zational environment, on special situations, and on other
variables. Therefore, if some characteristics have led to
success for one officer, they may not lead to success for others

The other weak point which is unseen by the critical inci-
dent method, is that it does not show the actual and future
expense of that successfully performed event. It is seen in
some cases that an officer has apparently performed an assign-
ment effectively, but only after the fact are the negative
effects and the expenses of his action understood.

Therefore, for having a valid result to determine what are
the skills that are needed for effective performance in leader-
ship and management, another method is suggested to support the
competency assessment for observed need. The preferred method
is called the ECHO METHOD, which will show the perceived need
for management and leadership.

Methodology

Using the same sample of officers of the critical incident
method with the respective rating "superior" or "average", the
perceived need assessment can be done by distribution of a

check list as a primer for the officers to use in generating
cards which describe good behaviors a junior officer should
perform. The officers in the sample will be asked to indicate
the skills and characteristics which they think are important
for an officer in junior grade. Eventually, a group of charac-
teristics can be sorted and labeled by the officers in language
which has meaning to that population of officers. Once all
these pooled responses are received and labeled according to
management functions, they can be set alongside the data col-
lected by the McClelland method, and checked for omissions of
pertinent factors. Here again, similar to the critical incident
method, it is possible to compare the superior and average
officers' perceptions. The differences in these perceived
characteristics are likely to show the perceived competency
characteristics toward which we shall desire to train.

Combining two methods which are mentioned above and to see
them as a single process, will largely reduce the weak points
of each method in need assessment. But even with this process
there is a very important point which must be considered. The
result of the analysis of observed needs and perceived needs
shows the needs of leadership and management skill in the cur-
rent time, and does not consider the needs of the future in such
a changing and expanding situation. Therefore, if we use the
two results (observed need and perceived need) as two valuable
inputs to a board whose members are the top management, and who
know the future changes and plans of the Navy, the decision of

the board will be enhanced in defining the real leadership and
management skills needs of the junior officers.

STEP II - Training Objectives

The identification of skills and knowledges needs is not
enough for setting the objectives of training. We have to know
how well the Navy wants to improve the officers' leadership and
management skill, according to the limitations and levels of
priority that will be given to this king of training. In other
words, we have to set some criterion levels based upon the Navy
needs and policy, which together make up a training objective.

STEP III - Testing

Based on how well we want to improve the leadership and
management skill, we set standards for the training to be met
by officers. Therefore, it implies a test. Part of the test
can be written as soon as the needs and policy (the objective
of training) are clarified. It would be better to write the
test after we know the objective of training and before we write
the teaching plan. The test should be based upon the objective,
not on the teaching. Because the primary purpose of a test is
to serve as a "go-nogo" indication. We want to find out only
whether the officers have reached the objective. It is not for
identifying how much better Officer B is than Officer A, or
what is the item difficulty, discrimination and deviation from
the norm.

However, it must not be assumed that we do not care about
the effectiveness of training. An evaluation system must be

designed.

STEP IV - Planning the Training Strategy

When the needs and objectives are fixed, it is necessary
to plan the training approach. It is necessary to decide how
each subject must be taught, and what the appropriate techniques
will be. We must also select instructors and decide WHEN and
WHERE the training must take place. These are the elements which
affect training efficiency, and if they are appropriately planned,
they will have a great impact on the motivation of officers
toward putting more effort into learning more. For appropriate
selections of the training techniques, it will be helpful to see
what are the learning principles (Table 4) and learning condi-
tions (Table 5) . With these in mind and the nature of the subject
to be taught, a technique can be chosen. As with any other
teaching device or technique, the effectiveness of simulation and
gaining is seen more in the management training. Simulation as a
teaching device for management, has had a considerable growth
in the United States. The results of a survey conducted in 1962
show that of 90 leading collegiate schools of business, 82 had

either been using or planned to use simulation as a teaching

35
technique. Simulation and management games can be used as a

technique for leadership and management education of Navy Junior

Officers in the Imperial Iranian Navy because there are several

35 DALE, ALFRED G. and CHARLES R. KLASSON, Business Gaming
A Survey of American Collegiate Schools of Business , Bureau of
Business Research, The University of Texas, 1964.

Table 4

LEARNING PRINCIPLES 36

One. LEARNING IS AN EXPERIENCE ACTIVATED BY AND OCCURRING
WITHIN THE LEARNER.

Learners are not "taught." They become "motivated" to
seek newer knowledges, skills, and behaviors.

Two. LEARNING IS THE DISCOVERY OF PERSONAL MEANING AND
RELEVANCY .

Learners more readily accept and use concepts which have
meaning to them and are relevant to their needs and problems

Three. LEARNING IS SOMETIMES A PAINFUL PROCESS.

Changing behavior often requires giving up old, comfortable
ways of believing, thinking, and acting.

Four. LEARNING RESULTS FROM EXPERIENCE.

People become independent when they have experienced inde-
pendence; trusting when they have experienced trust; respon-
sible when they have experienced responsibility.

Five. LEARNING IS HIGHLY UNIQUE AND INDIVIDUAL.

Each learner develops his own way of learning and solving
problems. As he becomes exposed to the methods of others,
he can refine his own in order to be more effective.

Six. LEARNING HAS ITS RICHEST RESOURCE IN THE LEARNER'S SELF.

The learner's background of experiences provides a wealthy
resource for problem-solving and learning.

Seven. LEARNING IS BOTH AN EMOTIONAL AND AN INTELLECTUAL PROCESS.
Learners have feelings as well as thoughts. Learning is
maximized when learners say that which reflects both what
they think and fell.

Eight. LEARNING IS A COOPERATIVE AND COLLABORATIVE PROCESS.

Helping each other to learn requires a process of inter-
active interdependence.

1973.

3 6 Human Resource Management Handbook, BUPERS , Wash. D.C.,

LEARNING PRINCIPLES, continued

Nine. LEARNING IS AN EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS.

The ability to be understanding, accepting, trusting,
confronting, sharing, helping, and evaluating requires
a developing, evolving process. It cannot be imposed.

Table 2
LEARNING CONDITIONS 37
One. AN ENVIRONMENT OF ACTIVE PEOPLE.

People learn when they feel they are personally involved
in the learning process.

Two. A CLIMATE OF RESPECT.

When a high value is placed on individuality, and a sense
of caring prevails.

Three. A CLIMATE OF ACCEPTANCE.

Accepting a person means that he can be himself and hold
his beliefs.

Four. AN ATMOSPHERE OF TRUST.

When people end up feeling a trust in themselves and others.

Five. A CLIMATE OF SELF-DISCOVERY.

When learners are helped to meet their own needs rather than
having their needs dictated to them.

Six. A NON-THREATENING PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATE.

So that persons can confront persons, and ideas confront
ideas ... without fear.

Seven. A CLIMATE OF OPENNESS.

When personal concerns, feelings, ideas and beliefs can be
expressed and examined openly.

Eight. AN EMPHASIS ON THE UNIQUELY PERSONAL NATURE OF LEARNING.
When each individual knows that his values, his beliefs,
his feelings, and his views are important and significant.

Nine. A CLIMATE IN WHICH DIFFERENCE IS DETERMINED TO BE GOOD AND
DESIRABLE.

When differences in people are as acceptable as differences
in ideas.

Ten. A CLIMATE WHICH RECOGNIZES THE RIGHT OF INDIVIDUALS TO
MAKE MISTAKES .

1973.

37 Human Resource Management Handbook, BUPERS , Wash. D.C.,

LEARNING CONDITIONS, continued;

Learning is facilitated when error is accepted as a
natural part of the learning process.

Eleven. AN ATMOSPHERE THAT TOLERATES AMBIGUITY.

When alternative solutions can be explored without the
pressures of immediate answers.

Twelve. AN EMPHASIS ON COOPERATIVE EVALUATION AND SELF -EVALUATION .
When people can see themselves as they really are, with the
help of their peers.

strong points that support the value of decision simulation as
an effective management education technique. First, the
participants experience a great deal of personal involvement.
Because they are highly emotional and psychologically involved,
they can become very receptive to learning new skills. Second,
the management game is a dynamic and live case focusing atten-
tion on the changing Navy situation. It simulates the decision
making environment of the Navy and compresses a large amount of
decision making experience into a short period of time.

Third, it gives the opportunity of focusing on problems in
the general area of leadership and management, with specific
emphasis on functional relationships.

Fourth, officers undergoing these simulations are usually
able to see the overall needs of the Navy and its limitations
and viewpoints of the chain of command and other departments.
They are now able to also focus upon specific tasks and skills
within their jobs.

Finally, the elements of risk and uncertainty are portrayed
in a very real sense and must be considered within the framework
of decision making.

There are several other advantages for using simulation and
gaming as a training technique, but still it must be kept in
mind that this technique is very effective when properly employed,
and that the administration of this technique or any other tech-
niques will be affected by the number of students, time length,

3 8 Cohen, et al, The Carnegie Tech Management Game , Richard
D. Irwin, Inc., 1964.

and resources available for training. The selection of trainina
techniques must be done when all the necessary data are collected
and the related policy of the Navy is defined.

As was mentioned before, one of the points which must be
considered in planning the training strategy is: Who is it who
is going to teach? A teacher or instructor has a great role in
the performance of students especially in the training education
centers, either civilian or military. Considerable attention
must be placed upon the selection and training of instructors.

SELECTION OF INSTRUCTORS FOR LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT COURSE —
When we have defined needs and objectives of training and care-
fully considered content, methods and technique of teaching, it
would seem that besides the knowledge components needed for
instructors, which are not difficult to measure, the most impor-
tant point will be to examine the components of behavior for
instructors that underlie success in leadership and management
training. It is in fact the characteristics of a successful leader-
ship and management instructor which must be defined. Once they
are known, a process for selection of instructors can be designed
based on those characteristics. Therefore, the central question
will be: "What should the instructor be like, or putting it
another way, "What does the student respond to in the instructor?"

Charles Albano (Employee Development Specialist in training
at Fort Mammoth. He serves as a Chairman of Management Develop-
ment Department. His special interest is the study of leadership.)

defined some characteristics of traners which are worth mention-

mg:

Sincerity: Generally speaking, the insincere instructor is

given away by what he says and how he chooses to support
his points. The sincere instructor, on the other hand,
recognizes the reservations that certain managers (officers)
may have, and where justified, concedes to them in appro-
priate measure, placing them aside until everything can be
seen in perspective.

Open-mindedness: Before a mature adult will gamble on the accep-
tability of his ideas in a classroom situation, he usually
looks for signs that assure him that his ideas will be
treated with the respect that they deserve. He needs to
know that he can trust the instructor in this important
respect. Once assured of this, he will come forth as a
contributer in group activities, and he will be more in-
clined to remain open-minded himself.

Confidence: This is a quality that is very quickly felt by

students, and it is one that can enforce their attention
and respect. Where the instructor shows lack of confidence,
it may be taken as an indication that he is not sure of,
that he does not believe in the concepts, theories, or
views he is teaching. This can have serious implications
in the training of students who by the nature of their jobs
tend to concentrate on the practical.

39 CHARLES ALBANO, "Closing the Confidence Gap," Training
and Development Journal, August, 1973, pp. 8-13.

Preparation: When an instructor has done his "homework" it is
evident. Preparation is reflected in his ability to make
a nice lateral or vertical transition in his thinking. It
is also evident in his ability to trace a subject into
successively detailed levels, or to integrate the subject
into other currents of thought that hold interest for the
students. Perhaps the most important point of preparation
for instructors is in providing illustrations that clarify
and make ideas relevant to the student's experience.

Facility in Condensing, Selecting, and Trying-In Thoughts:

With a time limit, the instructor has the opportunity to
convey to his students information or theories of current
applicability. If he reduces these to a level of gross
simplicity, he will destroy the full meaning and intent.
If he is not able to tie-in to previously learned material
or relate the new to the student's experience, he will lose
the opportunity to induce change.

Concern for Application: One of the most important elements in
successful training, especially in leadership and manage-
ment, lies in the instructor's ability to communicate his
concern for real world application of the material he brings
to the students' attention. The students look to such
concern as one indication of the sincerity behind the
training program. If the attention directed to theory is
one-sided and excessive, the instructor is teaching to deaf
students .

Participation in the Learning Process: Particularly in the

leadership and management training, instructors generally
do now know the experiences of the students. Therefore,
there will be a communicative condition that will spur
instructor and student to mutual participation in learning.
This will further indicate the instructor's sincerity,
open-mindedness and confidence.
Future-mindedness: This must be communicated by the instructor's
awareness of the projects and problems coming in the future,
and demands that these are going to place on the existing.
What are mentioned above are some characteristics which an
instructor would possess in the leadership and management train-
ing. Perhaps in some cultures, some changes are needed or some
others must be considered to cope with proper culture, but the
important point is they must be defined before the selection
procedure, and they must be categorized in terms of skills which
can be measured and constitute the basis of the selection
criterion.

The proposed selection system which will be stated below
does not show a detailed procedure for selection of instructors
for leadership and management training courses. It is only a
general process which can be applicable in case the Imperial
Iranian Navy intends to establish a training center for leader-
ship and management courses.

The objective of this system would be selection of the
best instructors (given, training objective, content of subjects

to be taught, training techniques) from the human resources
available for duty at the new Naval Leadership and Management C
Center (school).

In order to show how the process can work it is is needed
to bring up before:

(1) It is assumed that resources of instructors is Officers'
Corps of the Navy. For some subjects within the leadership
and management training, the instructors can be employed
from either the I. I. Army or I. I. Air Force, or even
civilian universities. But the assumption is made because
it is believed that as long as the course is in the area

of leadership and management in the Navy, it would be more
appropriate and more effective to use Naval Officers as
instructors .

(2) As it is stated before, if the I. I. N. intends to provide
such a formal course for junior officers, it will be new
and there will be no past experience from which to draw.
Therefore, the system of selection must be future-oriented.
The feedback will be the most important factor in the system,
The Navy must continually re-evaluate the selection methodo-
logy. The question must be asked "Are the instructors being
selected effectively?" If not, the system should be tuned
to provide the desired result.

(3) It is felt that willingness is the main factor that must be
considered in selection of instructors, otherwise, to put

any kind of test in the selection process will be meaning-
less. In this case the question is, "If there are no
volunteers, what can be done?" In such a case, the selec-
tion must be done based only on archival data which the
Navy has on each officer. But if some motivation factors
support the instructor job, for example, if the instructor
billet be a positive point in selection for promotion,
there should be volunteers. Of course, the possibility of
the creation of such a motivation factor depends on how
top management sees the course and what is the priority of
this course with respect to other projects.
(4) The criterion and skills generally mentioned in the proposed
process have the main purpose of showing how the system
works. In fact, based on the needs of leadership and manage-
ment skill, course content, training technique, etc. the
characteristics of an effective instructor must be defined
and the criterion must be derived from these characteristics,
and it must be carefully developed, feasible and relevant.
Criterion should be both general and specific in nature.
General criteria should cover the attributes desired in an
instructor; specific criteria should identify the unique
demands of the subject that he is going to teach. It is
recommended that such a criterion be developed by a board
of people selected for their knowledge and experience in
the area.

(5) The rejection of candidates in the process of selection
should be free of penalty because it will decrease the
number of volunteers as an immediate effect.

(6) The job of instructor is the same as other jobs in the Navy
The officer selected after the relative training will be
the leadership and management instructor for some years and
then will go to other duty.

(7) It is believed that the important factor in designing a
system is gathering enough valid data, in fact, a feasibi-
lity study is suggested. Once enough information is avail-
able, the designed model will be more effective and more
applicable in proper situations.

These points and other points, such as the size of the
training center or time length of the courses provided by the
center, which will be determined when Navy policy is defined,
must be kept in mind for the developing of a selection model
which, hopefully, will cope with the objective of the leader-
ship and management training.

A PROPOSED PROCEDURE FOR SELECTION OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
INSTRUCTORS FROM THE IMPERIAL IRANIAN NAVY OFFICERS (Figure 4) .
(1) APPLICATION ISSUE: The first step in instructor selecting
model would be to issue applications to all officers in the
Navy. The purpose of this application is to identify volun-
teers for instructors at the Navy Leadership and Management
School. Along with the application can be sent general

PRESELECTION

WRITTEN TEST

SIMULATION TEST

FINAL SELECTION

TRAINING

£r_-_-_-_

-~-'J CRITERION

!<T

NEEDS

I CONTENT

/ I

*----==,

H CRITERION X

\ N I OBJECTIVE

TRAINING
TECHNIQUE

\ | OF TRAINING

I RESOURCES |
I AVAILABLE

FIGURE 4.

information about the course and the school, to assist the
officers in deciding whether or not to submit an applica-
tion.

(2) PRE-SELECTION: Once the applications have been received,
they can be screened, and pre-selection can be accomplished
by using a general criterion. By general criterion it is
meant those criterion which have been determined in advance
by training experts, and the data needed for criterion is
available in archival data. For example, an overall evalu-
ation of an officer can be made by examining his record

and his duty experience by looking at his assignment history

(3) EVALUATION OF SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE: The next step could be
to evaluate the selectee's specific knowledge on a written
test prepared by a committee of experts.

(4) SIMULATION TEST: The officers who pass the written test
would then be given a simulation test in which their skills
and characteristics as a leadership and management instruc-
tor would be observed and measured. The simulation can be
done as follows:

a. The subject matter to be taught is chosen and given to
the selectee.

b. The selectee is given a limited amount of time to pre-
pare a lecture from the information provided and his
past experience.

c. A classroom can be set up.

d. The selectee is allowed a specified amount of time to
teach the subject.

e. Two experts observe the lecture and evaluate the
selectee.

f. The experts each rate the selectee.

(5) FINAL SELECTION: The combined average rating which will
result from the simulation test should be sent to the
selection board. The selection board members can be offi-
cers or civilians who will be chosen for their knowledge
in the training field. For further validation of selectee
capabilities in the selection process, it would be impor-
tant to provide additional input for the selection board

to use. This additional input could be either the officer's
past fitness reports or a special form prepared by training
experts, to measure the skills and characteristics desired
for an instructor. This form could be a kind of question-
naire filled out by the candidate's commanding officer. If
it is necessary, the selection board can give weight to the
input criteria and select the required number of officers.
Additional evaluation methods can be used by the board to
make the final selection in a way the members of the board
think is more relevant.

(6) TRAINING: The officer selected for leadership and management
training instructor will be sent for training. The training
of the candidate is not within the purpose of the general
procedure shown above. But the important point is: The
result of selection and training must be compared with each
other and both of them must be compared with the actual

performance of instructors. The system should be analyzed
consequently and should be able to tune for desired validity,
of course. This is possible if it is flexible and enough
open for necessary changes.

STEP V - Developing the Training Course

Based on the needs, the objective of training, and a tech-
nique of teaching, a course must be carefully designed. If this
is not done, the whole program may fail. The systems approach
is to develop each objective of the training in some detail —
enough to furnish detailed guidance for lesson plans. It would
be wrong to oversimplify this part of the systems approach. If
it is not specified in detail, it has the risk of overteaching
and being irrelevant.

STEP VI - Providing the Training

The training will be given as the plan which is prepared in
Step V, but in this step it can be adjusted to meet the difficul-
ties that the trainees encounter, because it may happen that some
points were not seen in the planning of the program.

STEP VII - Immediate On-The-Job Application and Feedback

This step refers to everything we do to ensure that after
each session of the course, each officer applies what he has
learned on the course in his own job. In this way, knowledge

acquired during the course will be turned into skill on the job.
We also need some immediate feedback as to the ability of
students to apply their skills and the receptivity of seniors
in accepting these improvements.

STEP VIII - Formal Evaluation and Improving the Training

For the Navy, we must ensure that the graduated officers do
a better job in their assignments. We based our objective of
training upon the basis of these tasks. The content, and even-
tually the test, of the courses were based upon these objectives
and we followed up to ensure that the officers applied their
knowledge on the job. One might assume that everything should
be all right. Should it? Sometimes people do not perform as
predicted, and if this is the case we would like to know why.
In this instance, we have to ask what results are obtained from
this training even if the system was carefully designed. Is it
possible to get the same, or better, results at a lower cost?
By answering these questions, we will be able to plan improve-
ments to the training objectives, training strategy, course
material, and follow-up on the job. Therefore, a systematic
evaluation of training is needed.

EVALUATION OF THE TRAINING

Ships, Departments, Divisions, in fact, any work group
within the Navy, is a social system made up of mutually dependent
parts. Descriptions of organization behavior, rules, regulations,

and orders tend to show group structures and interaction forces
between them. Perhaps it would be better to see the Navy as a
socio-technical military system, but in any way, the changes in
one part of the system may create conflict reactions in the
other parts of the system, or in minor scale application of the
changes in skill, attitude and behavior of an officer who just
finished the course may create conflict reaction in other offi-
cers. Therefore, sometimes especially in the leadership and
management subjects, where the perception of the correct style
of leadership and management depend on the beliefs, personality
and values of the individuals, it will be dangerous to lose
sight of the group as the focal point of leadership and manage-
ment training, and to forget that leadership and management
training might more effectively be done in the aggregate rather
than individually. If it is done individually, it will be
meaningless to try to measure whether Officer X was specifically
developed by the course he attended, and without this measurement
it is impossible to discover what the real impact of management
training is on the performance of the officers.

Usually in any kind of organization, the evaluation of
training is generally weak because managers think it is a waste
of time to test something that it has convinced itself is good.
But, in fact, the systematic evaluation of training is something
other than a waste of time. All the efforts and money committed
for design of a leadership and management program have the
ultimate goal of bringing about the desired or needed behavior

changes in the areas of attitudes, skills, and knowledge. The
purpose of training evaluation, therefore, should be to deter-
mine if such leadership and management desired changes did
occur as a result of training. In a sense, it is necessary to
establish an accountability system to compare the demonstrated
benefit of training to the expense of effort, time, and money.
In fact, we will be concerned with the quility of the evidence
to demonstrate effectiveness of training.

To assess the quality of evidence, one of the most impor-
tant problems is the criterion problem. Perhaps it is possible
to think about criterion as an approximation of the Navy's goal,
but any way, it should be settled on the basis of the training
objectives which are stated before the training occurs, and a
criterion measure should naturally be originated from the pre-
specif ication of objectives. The criterion must have certain

characteristics. In order of importance, these are: relevancy,

40
reliability, freedom from bias, and acceptability to management.

Normally enough, attention is not put on criterion, which

results in meaningless research. For example, one of the most

popular, and perhaps least meaningful, criterion measures is

participant questionnaires for rating the quality of training,

course structure, course content, etc., which will almost

produce positive results. Of course, it is easy to administer

and simple to analyze, but unless the purpose, the pre-stated

40 R. L. THORNDIKE, Personnel Selection , New York: Wiley,
1949.

objective of the training experience was to modify trainee
attitudes toward the course, so what? 41

Experimental Design

One of the most acceptable designs for evaluation of train-
ing is experimental design, and the minimally appropriate experi-
mental design would necessarily suggest the use of pre-test and
post-test along with controlled groups. One group will go
through training, another from the same population would not.
Both groups will be measured on the criterion variable before
the training and after training, and then statistical analysis
will show if any behavior change results from training. This
subject has been discussed by many people, for example, Campbell

and Dunnette, 19 68; Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler and Weick, 197 0;

44
McGehel and Thayer, 1961. As it was mentioned before, the

minimally adequate design combines the pre-test and the post-
test with the controlled group. A design without pre-test and
post-test does not generate evidence of behavior change and a

41 LEE, S.M., and DEAN, C, "University Management Programs,
an Emperical Evaluation," Training and Development Journal , 1971,
25(1) , pp. 32 - 37.

42 CAMPBELL, J. P., and M. B. DUNNETTE, "Effectiveness of
T-Group Experiences in Managerial Training and Development,"
Psychological Bulletin , 1968, 70, pp. 73 - 104.

43 CAMPBELL, J. P., DUNNETTE, M.B., LAWLER, E.E., and WEICK,
K.E., Managerial Behavior, Performance, and Effectiveness , New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.

4 4 McGEHEE, W. , and THAYER, P.W., Training in Business and
Industry , New York: Wiley, 1961.

design without a control group does not generate evidence of
the extent to which any measured behavior change might have
been caused by the treatment (training) .

A PROPOSED EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN FOR EVALUATION OF LEADERSHIP
AND MANAGEMENT TRAINING IN THE IMPERIAL IRANIAN NAVY.

Evaluation for leadership and management training could
be done by the simplest experimental method, which incorporates
the pre-test and post-test along with the control group. The
overall purpose of training is to change knowledge, attitude,
and behavior of officers from level 0, to level 0~, which is
desired. In fact, it is the objective of leadership and manage-
ment training, but pre-test and post-test of the training do
not show the changes produced by training, because there are
some other events which may cause the differences of knowledge,
attitude, and behavior of trainees in the time length of
training. Therefore, the use of control groups is needed, it
means besides the officers who will be chosen for training, a
comparable group of officers can be randomly chosen as the
control group. In this way, general historical events that
might have produced an 0, - 0- difference, probably would also
produce an 0-. - 0. difference (Figure 5) . However, these differ-

Figure 5

Pre-Tested

Post-Tested

Treatment

°i

°2

No Treatment

°3

°4

ences are not exactly the same because in reality all the offi-
cers in the experimental group can not be treated exactly the
same, and similarly the officers in the control group will not
be subjected to the same historical events with each other and
with respect to the experimental group. This is the weak
point that experimental methods have, but in any use it must
not be forgotten that it is the most acceptable method. Once
changes caused by historical events are found by use of control
groups, the changes of knowledge, behavior, and attitude caused
by training can be determined.

One of the desired components of learning is it must be
relatively permanent and behavioral change resulting. To find out
that the components of learning are satisfied by training, another
method is suggested here. This method is designed by Dr. Richard
D. McGonical (U.S. Navy Commander, Professor of Naval Postgraduate
School) .

In this method, similar to previous ones, two groups will
be randomly chosen as the experimental group (treatment group)
and control group. Each group is further divided randomly into
three subgroups, as shown in Figure 6. The first subgroup of
control group will go through all three tests (pre-test, post-
test-end of training, and post-test after one year) . The second
subgroup of both treatment and control groups will not do the
pre-test, and the third subgroup of each group will be tested

4 5 DONALD T. CAMPBELL, JULIAN C. STANLEY, Experimental
and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research, pp. 13 - 14.

Pre-Test

Post-Test
End of Training

Post-Test
After One Year

TREATMENT
GROUP

°1

°2

°3

°4

°5

°6

CONTROL
GROUP

oc 1

oc 2

0C 3

0C 4

0C_

0C 6

Figure 6

only after one year past training. Analyzing in this way the
data collected from this method will show not only the effective-
ness of training, but the validity of tests and randomness of
selected groups and subgroups. In fact, there is a great deal
of information which can be drawn from this research. For
example, it is hoped that there is no considerable difference
between 0, and OC, . If there is, it shows that the two groups
are not comparable. The difference between 2 and CU shows how
permanent was learning, and in a sense it even shows how much
the officers who were trained apply the concept that they
learned in their actual assignment. The difference between g

and OC,. shows the real overall effectiveness of training. As
o

was mentioned before, a lot of useful information can be shown
by this method.

In the systematic development of leadership and management
training proposed, each step involved in system engineering,
from need assessment to training evaluation, depends on the
preceding steps being carefully taken. The desired outcome is
well trained graduated junior officers able to do their assign-
ments in the Navy, which they were trained for. Every step
within the system which was considered more important, is
covered in more detail; need assessment, training technique,
instructor selection, training evaluation. Proper attention
to each step should bring success. But still must be kept in
mind, that absolute success in training depends on so many
things that it's hard to single out any one.

IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE RESE ARCH

Leadership and management training development is much more
than a systematic set of plans, programs, and procedures. To
design a very effective formal training does not guarantee the
development of desired performance of officers toward the Navy's
objective. The factors which would be responsible for the
Navy's falling short of its objectives even if this leadership
and management program is developed in the best way can be
stated as:

(1) Inconsistency between the formal education and actual
practices of leadership and management on the job, and
non-consideration of O.D. as a dimension of learning
process .

(2) If the education program is not in time with societal
changes .

(3) If Top Management support is not clearly stated.

1. INCONSISTENCY BETWEEN THE FORMAL EDUCATION AND ACTUAL PRAC-
TICES ON THE JOB, AND THE O.D. DIMENSION. The terms "educa-
tion" and "training" are used interchangeably in this thesis.
However, if we interpret education as an acquisition of know-
ledge usually connected with an educational center, and see
it as a formalized and directed training; and if we interpret
training to involve a change in knowledge, skill, attitude,
or behavior through practice, then we can separate these two
terms. But can we really have education without training or

training without education in the overall learning process?
It is believed that the answer is "No." Everyone is acquiring
new information, skills, habits, and attitudes daily. When
left unorganized and undirected, the result will often be
fruitless to the organization. The training must be based on
a sound foundation educationally. On the other hand, a distinct
formal leadership and management education is a technique to
attain desired results. It is not an end in itself. The
results may be obtained if formal education is followed by appro-
priate training, otherwise it cannot work, and it may even have
negative results if the formal education and training are incon-
sistent. It is stated above that the desired result may be
obtained if formal education is combined with actual practices
and training on the job. Because today the question is bigger
than^ "Can we learn by education without training or training
without education?" It is, "Is it possible to survive without
fully considering human resources and accepting full responsibi-
lity?" It seems, today, that there is another dimension entered
into the overall learning process: "organizational development."
It means developing the most effective organization through the

maximum utilization of the human resources available toward the

46 . . .

achievement of the organization's goal. Education and training

remain interchangeable in the final analysis, but more than ever

before, the organization's growth must be seen as a synthesis of

the growth of its members.

46 Definition frequently used in the U.S. Navy's Human
Resource Management Support System.

It seems that the effectiveness of training and educa-
tion depend on programs which can be carefully developed and
followed up on the job. But it is not always so, because
this is only an opportunity that will be provided by the
organizations for their members. Then how much they will
learn and what they will learn depends on how much they
commit for learning, and their commitment will depend highly
on the factors such as values, motivation, and personality.

Galileo said very well, "You can not teach a man any-
thing you want; you can only help him to find it within
himself." This is what MacGregor, Maslow, Herzberg, Gelerman,
Myers, Blake, and a number of other people tried to make

understood.

Rex F. Sheets says:

(1) Training is an important and essential facet of
modern organizations. However, we must consider
training and development as an integral part of
the person's working life, and not as a program
with a beginning and an end.

(2) I believe this statement is as true today as it
ever was. The idea here is commitment rather
than just agreement.

(3) Training does accomplish these ends. However,

the work itself must be organized to meet people's
needs. The achievement of organizational require-

47 "A Philosophy of Training Revisited," Training and
Development Journal, June 1973, pp. 25-26.

ments will depend upon how we can help people
satisfy the organization by satisfying themselves.

(4) Training is but one activity rather than the only
program, and again, we must be aware of the need
to integrate the organization's objectives with
the growth needs of its people.

(5) Training is a management tool and, as any carpen-
ter will tell you, there is no one tool that will
build a complete house.

(6) All training should be developed and designed
around, and with, the individual.

(7) Today, I believe the answer is constant feedback -
evaluation and responsive action.

(8) Training must have a purpose for the individual
and for the organization.

(9) Individuals are constantly in the state of learning
when they are not, they are in a state of dying (at
least mentally) .

(10) The whole process must be based on the combined
needs of the individuals and group goals.

2. IF THE EDUCATION IS NOT IN TUNE WITH THE SOCIETAL CHANGES.
The great Navy expansion in recent years and the continuous
growth in the future is dictated by the needs of the country.
The needs of the country for a greater armed forces, and
therefore a greater Navy, have the main objective of main-

taining the national independent policy and creating more
routes for welfare programs and economic growth. In the
course of attaining these objectives, the country will con-
front the changes in the fields of social, economic, world
politics, environment, technology, and demographics. All
of these changes will affect the proper expansion of all or
organizations in the country — civilian or military. And
more than ever there is the greatest demand for managerial
talent, which can be attuned with the changes without losing
sight of the objectives. Therefore, the leadership and
management training, as it is stated before as a technique
for development of managerial talent, must be able to respond
to the effect of these changes within the Navy. If the
training is not in tune with the changes, it would lose its
effectiveness very soon.

The implication of this trend would be:

(a) Organizations will require continuously new struc-
tures and new decision-making processes to cope
with these changes. Organizations within the
future Navy will probably become increasingly
complex in terms of size, financial resources,
and manpower utilization.

(b) People will insist on a greater opportunity to
become a meaningful part of the organization —
people will expect a chance to influence the posi-
tion and role that they perform in the organization

They will want more to be a part of the organiza-
tion. Individuals will be increasingly concerned
with their own self -actualization. Organizations
will need to focus on this motivation by structuring
jobs to allow a greater sense of self-fulfillment
and job enrichment. These factors will strongly
influence the leadership and management practices
and the education and training which supports them.

(c) The expansion of knowledge and technology will
continue. The rapid increase of knowledge and
technological innovation makes it increasingly evi-
dent that education must be seen as a continuing
life-long process. The means must be found for
involving the whole man on the job, so that work
and life become more meaningfully related. It will
be recognized that money alone is an insufficient
motivator. Work itself will be seen as a basic
source of satisfaction. Organizational objectives,
individual performance objectives, and training

objectives should be integrated, and in training,

48
process and content should be integrated.

(d) Management Decentralization - The continuous expan-
sion of the Navy will probably be accompanied with
gradual management decentralization. Therefore,
the future officers should be equipped with the

4 8 GORDON L. LIPPITT, "Future Trends Affecting the Training
and Development Profession," Training and Development Journal ,
December 1969, pp. 7-11.

broad managerial skills necessary for them to
function effectively in the complexity of an
expanded Navy.
(e) Changes in the Philosophy of Leadership and Manage-
ment — The total change in the various sectors of
the country will lead to changes in the philosophy
of leadership and management. There will be a ten-
dency to see more participative styles of manage-
ment. Confrontation, conflict and feedback will be
perceived as an effective technique in striving
toward the organization's goals.

3. TOP MANAGEMENT'S SUPPORT. There are always individuals in
any organization who possess a natural resistance to change
the style and the philosophy of leadership and management
which has been exercised within the organization. Unless
the top management is convinced with the importance of leader-
ship and management development to the organization and to
themselves, a similar resistance to the leadership and manage-
ment training program is likely to develop among them. The
only persons in the organization who are in positions to over-
come the unfavorable attitudes are the top management. By
showing an active interest and by giving a high level priority
to the leadership and management training program, they can
prevent a possible sabotage of the program before it has had
a chance to succeed. If they are not convinced of the pro-
gram's importance because of not being well prepared or

because of being pre-occupied by other vital projects, it
would be better to forget a formal type of leadership and
management training program and to develop another kind of
training, such as on-the-job training, which could be more
consistent with the Navy policy. Although a formal training
program may look good on paper, any program launched without
top management's support will be ineffective, and any result
obtained, unsatisfactory.

CONCLUSION

The process and general models suggested for development of
leadership and management training was based mainly on the consi-
deration of proposing a model, which hopefully could cope with
the changes and variable factors of culture. If the need assess-
ment for research is continuously done by the way proposed, the
system will be self -corrective for desired changes. In any case,
the road to leadership and management development is neither
easy, nor are the results always of a beneficial nature. And
since the proposed development process is to be based on the
needs of the Navy and the needs of its officers, it is impossible
to estimate accurately what the costs will be for the Navy. But
the leadership and management development training has become of
such importance that even the more costly approaches appear to
be a wise investment if satisfactory results are obtained. The
following benefits can be obtained by a well developed leadership
and management training: (1) Better individual performance;

(2) A broader overall leadership and management perspective;

(3) More qualified officers at a time and age when maximum ser-
vice can be rendered; (4) More delegation of decision making
as a result of more qualified personnel; (5) Better communi-

. cation; (6) Better morale; (7) Assistance to the recruiting
program; (8) Assistance to selection of personnel; (9) Better
understanding in the fields of management techniques and appli-
cation, and practical application of leadership methods.

Leadership and management is a continuing activity and re-
quires constant attention. It is true that the most effective
way of providing for the growth and development of leadership
and management skill of people in the organizations is through

the conscious coaching of subordinates by their immediate super-

49
lors. And it is true that the most effective way of learning

what is involved in the performance of officers' functions is
by doing. In other words, on-the-job training as a most univer-
sally accepted of all development tools, has many advantages,
such as: First, as stated previously, the one best way to learn
is to learn by doing. Second, development techniques can be
applied on an individual basis according to individual need.
But it has always the disadvantage that it is not any stronger
than the person who has to administer it. Thus, its success
depends upon the willingness and the ability of the superior
officer to create a climate conducive to growth, and to coach
and counsel the individual officer effectively.

49 MACE, Executives, p. 108.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

It is felt that to support this leadership and management
development effort a special unit should be created to:

(a) Evaluate the effectiveness of the program.

(b) Monitor the "state of the art" in management education
throughout the world, with particular emphasis upon
military efforts.

(c) Actively seek out which organizational measurement tools
would be most effective and appropriate in Iranian
culture, developing new tools where necessary.

(d) Introduce and compare new organization development tech-
nologies in the system which will support operational
readiness .

It is felt that systems are — after all — man-made. As
such, they are subject to error and misunderstandings, however
conscientious their authors.

Only with an active, searching reconnaissance of organization
development can military systems be fine-tuned to meet the
nation's most important needs. This author believes in his Navy's
sincerity in seeking excellence and believes in its willingness
to achieve excellence through the development of its human
resources.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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